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ELEMENTARY 

PRINCIPLE^ 

OF AGRICULTURE 



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FERGUSON AND LEWIS 







Copyright 1J^_- 



COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT; 



ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE 












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ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES 
OF AGRICULTURE 



A TEXT BOOK 
FOR THE COMMON SCHOOLS 



BY 

A. M. FERGUSON, B.S.H., M.8c. 

AND 

L. L. LEWIS, M.Sc, D.Y.M. 

PKOFES«OR VETERINARY SCIENCE, A. ANT) M. COLLEGE OF OKLAHOMA 



1908 
FERGUSON PUBLISHING COMPANY 

SHERMAN, TEXAS 






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LIBRARY of CONti«ESS 
I wo Cooies rtecvi-ii 

JUN n 1908 

Ato^ 2 7 '<?o^ 

OOHY a. 



Copyright, 1908 
By a. M. FERGUSON 



First Edition, June, 1008 



J. Horace McFarland Company 
Harrisburg, Pa. 



PREFACE 

The little volume herewith submitted for the use 
of the school children of the Southwest is the outcome 
of many years' study of the problem^s of rural school 
agriculture. Agriculture, as a, school subject, is new, 
and no guiding standards have yet been generally recog- 
nized which Umit the method or scope of such a text. 
A careful review of the many texts, that have been 
published during the last ten years shows a wide range 
of opinion as to the function of such texts. Some are 
mere handbooks, deaUng with the practical work of 
agriculture; others are only a series of short chapters 
on botany, chemistry, physics, zoology, meteorology, 
etc., without reference to applications. 

Our own ideas are that the primary object of a text 
on agriculture, intended for the common schools, is to 
satisfy the natural interest of all children about the 
whys of common farm conditions. This is the first step 
in developing an intelligent theory which will guide 
practice. 

While the idea of teaching agriculture is very old, 
it is only in recent years that it has come to be a large 
factor in the system of general education. A word of 
introduction, therefore, may not be out of place. 

A number of agricultural colleges and special schools 
for agricultural instruction were established between 
1840 and 1860. Some were privately endowed, others 
supported out of public revenues. In 1862, a bill, known 
as the ''Morrill Bill," passed the National Congress, 

(vii) 



viii Preface 

appropriating a specified amount of the public lands for 
the benefit of colleges to be established in the several 
states and territories, in which agriculture and the 
mechanical arts would be taught along with the subjects 
usually taught in the better grade of colleges. In the 
course of time, all the states and territories established 
colleges under the provisions of this Act. To fill the 
professorships in the classics and sciences was an easy- 
matter. To fill the professorships in agriculture was a 
problem. Agriculture had not been thought of as a field 
of much learning. ''What is agriculture," and ''What 
shall be taught as agriculture," were seriously discussed. 
It was soon discovered that while agriculture as an 
industry was old, little had been done to develop and 
organize the body of scientific facts bearing on the 
country's greatest industry. Something else was needed, 
— agricultural investigation. 

Several states established agricultural experiment 
stations in connection with their colleges, but in 1887 
Congress passed a bill authorizing the organization of 
an experiment station in connection with each of the 
agricultural colleges. These institutions have been 
studying agricultural problems for only a little more 
than a quarter of a centuiy, and in so short a time have 
discovered enough facts, and arranged these facts, so 
that we now have a science called agricultural science. 

The development of agricultural teaching has kept 
pace with the development of our knowledge of the 
subject. The teaching of agriculture is no longer con- 
fined to the colleges. The discoveries and ideas brought 
out by the investigations are too important to all the 
country not to be more generally taught. While only 
one-third of the population Kve in the country, approxi- 



Preface ix 

mately half of our people are directly interested in agri- 
culture as a business. Why not give them the benefit 
of what is known about the soil, plants and animals? 
''If any man w^ere to find himself in a new country, 
wholh^ devoid of schools, and were to be set the task 
of originating and organizing a school system, he would 
almost unconsciously introduce some subjects that 
would be related to the habits of the people and the 
welfare of the community/' Agriculture is taught not 
merely because it is an important industry, but as a 
school subject, to be studied from the point of view of 
science. As a field of study and investigation, it has 
attracted the highest talent. Agricultural science is 
now developed to a plane where it takes rank with the 
older and more popular lines of scientific investigation, 
such as chemistry, physics, biology, etc. 

We study language in order that we may more easily 
exchange ideas with our fellows: we study history and 
civics in order that we may better understand our social 
relations; we encourage the development of our artistic 
and emotional natures by singing, declamations, draw- 
ing, etc.; we study geography to get a knowledge of 
''the earth as the home of man," but not until recent 
years have we stopped to study the conditions that 
affect our immediate material environment, — the soil on 
which we live and grow the materials for food, shelter 
and raiment. It is surely no fad to study the things that 
are closest to us. 

As a broad, general statement, it is plain that a sub- 
ject so universal as agriculture should be studied, even 
though, as individuals, our work will be restricted to 
other lines. We shall still have a large interest in the 
ideas that belong to our country's greatest industry. 



X Preface 

The large body of useful facts and working theory that 
have been worked out by our experiment stations has 
proven the great value of the subject. When Professor 
Babcock discoMered a simple method of testing the value 
of dairy cows, he conferred a great benefit on mankind. 
A striking illustration of the need for a general knowl- 
edge of this test was discovered in Illinois. From in- 
vestigations made by the experiment station, it was 
found that a large per cent of the cows on the farm 
dairies of lUinois did not give enough milk and butter 
to pay for their board; that, instead of the cows working 
to make a hving for the farmer, the farmer was work- 
ing to make a living for the cows. What is true of 
Illinois is true of other sections. Equally significant 
facts have been brought to light in other lines of farm 
activity. 

Oklahoma is the first state to make the teaching of 
agriculture a constitutional requirement. The Agricul- 
tural and Mechanical College, with its Agricultural 
Experiment Station, and the state's system of Farmers' 
Institutes, the regulations dealing with fertilizer in- 
spection, live-stock inspection, nursery inspection, and 
other matters affecting the interest of agriculture in 
Oklahoma, is controlled by the Oklahoma State Board 
of Agriculture. 

The Board of Agriculture is selected by the farmers 
of the state and consists of eleven members. The 
president of the Board is elected by the people at a 
general election, and serves for four years. The remain- 
ing ten members are elected at annual meetings of the 
delegates from the various county farmers' institutes, 
held at the Agricultural and Mechanical College. After 
the present plan becomes fully established, there will 



Preface xi 

be two members of the Board elected at each annual 
meeting, and their term of service will be for five years. 
It is plain that this plan places the responsibility 
for the successful administration of the laws framed 
for the upbuilding of the agricultural interests of Okla- 
homa upon the farmers themselves, and especially upon 
those participating in the county institutes. 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 

In planning and preparing the work, we have had the 
benefit of counsel from a number of teachers, practical 
farmers, and others who are regularly engaged in the 
professional study of agricultural problems. The text 
has been greatly improved by the careful reading, either 
in whole or in part, by the following persons: Miss 
Dora Schnell, formerly of the Dallas public schools, 
who has very kindly prepared the questions at the end 
of the chapters; Miss Ada Henderson, of the public 
schools of Cameron, Texas; Mr. and Mrs. T. P. Robinson, 
both of them experienced teachers, who are also success- 
ful farmers. The above may be taken as representing 
the teaching and popular point of view. 

On the professional and technical side, valuable 
assistance and criticism have been given by Prof. J. H. 
Connell, President of the Oklahoma A. and M. College: 
Prof. F. R. Marshall, late Professor of Animal Husbandry, 
Texas A. and M. College, but now of the University of 
Ohio; Prof. T. V. Munson, our most accomplished and 
distinguished horticulturist; Prof. W. H. Long, Professor 
of Biology in the North Texas Normal College; Prof. 
C. 0. Moser, Special Agent, United States Department 
of Agriculture, and supervisor of the Denison Demon- 



xii Preface 

stration Dairy Farm and Prof. Tom Carter, Bureau of 
Soils, United States Depart of Agriculture. The chapter 
on birds has been reviewed by Prof. Carl Hartman, 
Superintendent of Public Instruction in Travis county, 
Texas, and Mr. T. Gilbert Pearson, Greensboro, N. C, 
Secretary of the National Association of Audubon Socie- 
ties. Acknowledgements are also due to Dr. W. D. 
Hunter, Bureau of Entomology, United States Depart- 
ment of Agriculture, for assistance and suggestions in 
the chapters dealing with the economic insects. We 
are glad to acknowledge the valuable assistance and 
criticisms that have been given by the persons named 
above, and others. 

The illustrations have been selected for their accuracy 
and educational value-. They have been drawn from 
various sources, and to the gentlemen and firms who 
have supplied or allowed the use of the illustrations we 
wish to extend our thanks. Many of the illustrations 
have been reproduced from pubhcations of the United 
States Department of Agriculture, and the several 
state agricultural experiment stations. We are indebted 
to Mr. Philip H. Hale, St. Louis, for figures 137, 138, 
139, 146, 147, and 148, taken from his excellent book of 
''Live Stock Champions," and to Suburban Life for fig- 
ures 152 to 156 and 158. Other acknowledgements are 
made in connection with particular illustrations. 

The Authors. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Preface vii 

Agricultural Literature xv 

PART I 

CHAPTER 

I. Agriculture and Knowledge 1 

II. Plants and Their Food 4 

III. Structure of Seeds 9 

IV. How Seedlings Get Established 12 

V. Plant Substance 24 

VI. How the Plant Increases Its Substance 28 

VII. The Water in Plants 32 

VIII. Structure and Work of Stems 34 

IX. The Plant as Related to the Soil 40 

X. Soils and Soil Management 52 

XI. Water in the Soil 67 

XII. Relation of the Plant to the Chemical Composition 

of the Soil 76 

XIII. Improving the Chemical Nature of the Soil .... 82 

XIV. Productiveness of Soils 94 

XV. Rotation of Crops . 98 

XVI. Relations of Plants above Ground 101 

XVII. The Office of Flowers 109 

XVIII. Pruning and Training of Plants 116 

XIX. Propagation of Plants 127 

XX. Improving Plants and Seeds 137 

XXI. Fungus Diseases of Plants 146 

XXII. Insects of the Farm 153 

XXIII. Some Special Injurious Insects 165 

XXIV. Useful Insects 174 

XXV. Wild Birds and Other Insect-eating Animals .... 178 

(xiii) 



xvi Table of Contents 

PART II 

CHAPTER PAGE 

XXVI. Animal Husbandry 187 

XXVII. Types and Breeds of Cattle 193 

XXVIII. Types and Breeds of Horses 202 

XXIX. Types and Breeds of Hogs 214 

XXX. Types and Breeds of Sheep and Goats .... 218 

XXXI. Farm Poultry 222 

XXXII. Nutrition of the Animal Body 233 

XXXIII. Farm Dairying 245 

PART III 
Special Topics 

XXXIV. The Home Lot 257 

XXXV. School Gardens 262 

XXXVI. Forestry 266 

XXXVII. Farm Machinery 271 

APPENDIX 

A. Books on Agriculture 278 

B. Insecticides and Fungicides 279 

C. Composition of American Feeding Stuffs 283 

D. Per cent of Digestible Nutrients in Stock Feed .... 284 

E. Average Digestible Nutrients and Fertilizing Constituents 

in Stock Feeds 285 

F. Standard Feeding Rations 287 

G. Standard Feeding Rations per Head 288 

H. Glossary 289 

Index 299 



AGRICULTURAL LITERATURE 

Agriculture is older than civilization, yet it is the 
last large field of human endeavor to develop a litera- 
ture that is distinctly its own, and the last to find a 
place in our system of education. 

In spite of this comparative newness, our publish- 
ing houses now issue books on special and general 
agriculture that compare favorably with the best in 
other hnes of thought. Every school library should 
have a number of the more recent special treatises on 
the important phases of agriculture. A suggestive list 
is given in Appendix A. 

In addition to the volumes published by the 
regular book trade, the United States Department of 
Agriculture and the several state agricultural experi- 
ment stations publish, for free distribution, bulletins 
giving accounts of investigations on the varied prob- 
lems of agricultural science and practice. 

Special attention is called to the series of " Farm- 
ers' Bulletins," issued by the United States Depart- 
ment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. They are sent 
to all parties on request. This series now includes a 
special bulletin on all the leading field, orchard and 
garden crops, and the many classes of farm animals. 

Many states have a state department of agricul- 
ture that publish bulletins dealing with agriculture. 
With a few exceptions, all government publications are 
sent free. Application should be made to the Direc- 
tors of the state experiment stations. 



(XV) 



ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES 
OF AGRICULTURE 



PART I 

CHAPTER I 

AGRICULTURE AND KNOWLEDGE 

1. Agriculture and Life. 'The object of agriculture," 
says Professor Johnson, " is the production of certain 
plants and certain animals which are employed to feed, 
clothe, and otherwise serve the human race." Every 
American should understand the elementary principles 
of agriculture, because it is our country's most impor- 
tant industry. Whatever materially affects the pro- 
ductions of the farms and ranches also affects the trades 
and professions, for the latter are the chief consumers 
of agricultural products. 

2. The Three Phases of Agriculture. There are three 
phases of agriculture: first, the business phase; second, 
the arts or crafts phase; and third, the scientific phase. 
Agriculture, as a means of making a Uving, is a business. 
Growing crops and stock, and the manufacturing of 
these raw materials into finished products, are neces- 
sary arts, based on a knowledge of the working of natu- 
ral forces. The giving of milk by a cow, or the develop- 
ment of a peach from a flower, are natural phenomena. 
Increasing the flow of milk, or increasing the fruitful- 
ness of a plant, are natural arts. Doing these things 

A (1) 



2 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 

for profit is a matter of business Knowing how these 
things are done, how to control the natural forces so 
that certain results are secured, are matters of knowl- 
edge. When all this knowledge is systematically ar- 
ranged, we have a science. As it is about agriculture, 
it is agricultural science. 

3. Natural Science is organized knowledge of the 
phenomena of natural objects. The soil, the plants and 
the animals with which the farmer works are natural 
objects. A knowledge of the science of the natural ob- 
jects of the farm serves to guide the farmer in the 
practice of his craft. Knowing how plants grow is not 
only interesting, but also useful information to persons 
who grow plants. The same is true of animals. To know 
something of how plants grow is to have a knowledge 
of botany. To know how to grow plants is to have 
some knowledge of agriculture. 

4. A Knowledge of the Science of Agriculture is de- 
sirable. Ability to work amounts to little without the 
application of knowledge. We may know how, or possess 
the skill to do a certain kind of work, without knowing 
the reason for doing it in that particular way. A man 
may guide a team and hold a plow so that it runs 
smoothly, and yet not know why, or when, or how to 
plow, to secure a desired result. Hence, we have an art 
of doing things, and a science of why, when and how. 
The master workman must possess the scientific knowl- 
edge that underlies his trade. 

5. How a Knowledge of Agriculture is Gained. Knowl- 
edge comes by exact observation and correct thinking. 
Observations are sometimes incorrect or incomplete. 
As a basis for correct thinking, we must have accurate 
observation. Books are merely the printed statements 



Agriculture and Knowledge 3 

of what others have observed and thought. Hence; 
book information is not always in accord with the 
actual conditions; and, by placing too much confidence 
in the printed page, one is sometimes misled. An ancient 
writer stated that a cow had eight upper front teeth. 
For centuries afterward, this statement was beheved 
and repeated in many books, until one more careful 
looked into a cow's mouth and found, not eight, but 
no upper front teeth. Practical farmers, teachers, and 
books may guide us as to how best to find out; but we 
must use our own hands, eyes, and minds to acquire 
knowledge, if we wish to really know. In writing out 
our observations, we must be careful to distinguish 
between what is observed and the conclusions which 
we make from our observations. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What is the object of Agriculture? 2. Why should Americans 
particularly study Agriculture? 3. What are the three phases of 
Agriculture? Distinguish between these by familiar examples. 
4. What is a Natural Science? 5. How does Botany differ from 
the Science of Agriculture? 6. In what way is a knowledge of the 
Science of Agriculture desirable? 7. How may this knowledge be 
gained? 



CHAPTER II 
PLANTS AND THEIR FOOD 

6. Environment is a general term for all the condi- 
tions that surround an animal or plant, such as air, 
soil, water, light, temperature, other plants or animals, 
etc. 

7. Culture seeks to make the environment favorable 
to the particular plant or animal, or to produce plants 
and animals better adapted to the environment. The 
most important conditions are those that affect the 
supply of the substances used for food by the plant or 
animal. To encourage the growth of, say, a corn plant, 
we destroy the weeds that would injure it, and cultivate 
the ground to make a better home for its roots. To 
intelligently cultivate plants, we must first learn how 
plants grow and get their food. 

8. Not All Plants Use the Same Kinds of Food. Not all 
plants are like those familiar to us, as trees, herbs, etc. 
Possibly we do not often think of the yeast put in the 
dough to make the bread ^' rise,'' or the " green scum " 
on the ponds, as plants, — yet they are, though very simple 
ones. The yeast which we get from the grocery store 
as " compressed yeast " is only a mass of millions of 
very small plants, each one composed of a tiny mass of 
living substance, called protoplasm. "^^ This mass of 
protoplasm is surrounded by a delicate membrane, 
called a cell-wall. These plants are so small that they 

*Protoplasm (meaning primitive substance) is the older term for that part 
of the cell having the property of life. Some writers prefer the term bioplasm, 
(meaning living substance). 

(4) 



Plants and Their Food 




can not be seen by the naked eye. When greatly magni- 
fied by the microscope, their simple structure is plainly 
seen. Each plant is only a single cell, such as shown 

in Fig. 2 a and 6. Each one of 
these plants, or cells, has the 
power to form daughter plants, 
that soon become independent. 
9. Fungi. Yeast belongs to 
a class of plants called fungi 
(f un-gi — singular, fungus) . These 
fungus plants are very small, 
but they are very important. 
The bacteria causing the nodules 
on peas and clover plants are 
very beneficial. Some cause dis- 
ease that destroys other plants,, 
like the rust on oats, mildew on 
roses and grapes, or the rots of 
fruits and roots. Other kinds of 
these simple plants cause disease in animals, as chol- 
era in swine and chickens. Their food consists of the 
substances of other plants, or of animals, like starch, 
sugars, fat, lean 
meat, w^hite of 
egg, etc. In order 
to become famil- 
iar with the con- 
ditions which 
favor the growth 
of yeast-like 
plants, we will set 
up the following 

eXDeriment" Fig. 3. Figures of various kinds of Bacteria. (After 

^ * Cohn and Sachs. Very highly magnified.) 



Fig. 2. Yeast Colonies, yl, sur- 
face view of full - grown 
plants with young branches 
or buds. B, view of similar 
colonies seen as though cut 
across. Magnified about 750 
times. 







6 



Elementary Principles of Agriculture 



9a. Food Materials for Yeast. Secure two large bottles or fruit 
jars, and fill both about two-thirds full of clear well-water. To one 
jar add a teaspoonful of sugar and about as much of the white of 
an egg. See that both are completely dissolved. Now add to both 
jars small lumps of the ordinary ''compressed yeast," or dry yeast 
cake, secured from the bakery. Whichever is used, see that it is 
well dissolved in a spoonful of water before adding to the jar. Stir 
well and notice that the liquids are clear, or nearly so. Set aside in 
a warm place, but not in strong light, and observe once or twice 
a day for several days. The liquid soon becomes cloudy in the jar 
to which the food was added, but not in the jar of water. The cloudy 
effects are due to the large number of yeast plants formed. The 
sugar and egg substance furnish the nourishment for their growth. 
They do not multiply in the pure water. Yeast grows in the bread 
dough because the dough contains all the substances needed for 
the nourishment of the yeast plants. In the "dry yeast" these 
tiny cells are in a dormant condition, like seeds. 



10. The Green "Pond Scums" belong to a class of 
plants called algae (singular, alga). There are many kinds, 
and nearly all of them are very 
simple, being composed of single 
cells, or small masses of cells. 
Algae contain a green coloring 
matter, which yeast-like plants 
do not have. We shall later learn 
something of the value of this 
green coloring matter to the 
plant. 

11. The Food Materials of 
Green Plants are made from 

Fig. 4- Cells of Algae. A, a . 

simple one-celled form with water, carbouic acid gas, and the 

the cells embedded in a jelly- . , i t i i • i 

like wall. B and c, forms Simple mmerals dissolved in the 

with the cells arranged in m mi 

chains. natural waters oi the soil. Ihese 

are combined to make all the substances necessary for 
the nourishment and growth of their cells. They must 




Plants and Their Food 



have sunlight before they can make their food materials 
out of the simple substances named. 

11a. Food Materials Used by Green Plants. Use a jar filled with 
clear spring water, as mentioned in 9a, but add nothing to the jar 
but a small bit of some common pond scum, secured from the streams 
or watering troughs. Place the jar in a well-lighted window, prefer- 
ably a north window. Take care that the water does not get too 
warm by staying too long in very bright light. Observe from day 
to day to see if the alga mass is growing larger. It will grow much 
slower than the yeast plants. The jar may be kept for weeks by 
adding water from time to time, to make up the loss by evaporation. 
If the alga grows, we must conclude that it gets all the food it used 
from the well-water and air, because nothing else was added. The 
water contains salts dissolved from the soil, and carbonic acid gas 
dissolved from the air. 

12. Green Plants, like the pond scums, herbs, trees, 
etc., that are able to make their food materials out of 
simple substances, are called ''independent,'' or "self- 
feeding plants." Plants like the yeast, which must have 
their food substances pre- 
pared for them, are called 
"dependent plants." 

13. Cellular Structure of 
Plants. The yeast and algae 
are examples of very simple 
plants. The higher plants 
which we know as trees, 
herbs and weeds, are very 
large, but, if examined with 
a strong microscope, we find 
that their bodies are made Fig. 5. Growth of individual cells, a, 

r i 1 1 M a very young cell. B, similar cell, 

up Ot thousands, even md- but very much larger and older. 

!• r J.' n 1 Ti showing vacuoles or sap spaces. C, 

honS, ot tmy cells, much like a still later stage— all greatly mag- 

the relk of thp al^-jp and '''^^'^\ "'' '^^l^"^^"- ^' nucleus, v, 
tiic ctJiib Ui Lilt; dilgtJc dillLl vacuoles. 




8 



Elementary Principles of Agriculture 



yeast, except that their sides are flattened by pressing 
against each other. New cells are formed by a single 
cell dividing into two cells (Fig. 6). These new cells 
grow to a certain size and divide again, and so on till 
great numbers are formed. (See Fig. 14, C.) 

14. The Living 
Substances of Cells. 
The cell is the unit 
out of which all plant 
and animal bodies are 
made, just as the 
brick is the unit out 
of which buildings are 
made. Within each cell-wall is the hving substance, 
called protoplasm. It differs from dead substance in 
that it has a different chemical constitution, and the 
power of self-action. Protoplasm is a clear granular 
substance, like the white of an egg or mucilage. It 
differs from these in that it has life. 




A B C D 

Fig. 6. In forming new cells the living sub- 
stance orpotoplasm divides and then a cell- 
wall is formed between them. 



QUESTIONS 

1. Define environment. 2. What is the purpose of "culture?" 

3. What is the most important condition of plant environment? 

4. Describe the yeast plant. 5. Name other kinds of these simple 
plants, and mention their importance. 6. What do you learn from 
the yeast experiment as to the kind of food used by the yeast plants? 

7. What is the chief difference between a fungus and an alga? 

8. What do you learn from the "pond scum" experiment as to 
the food of the algse? 9. Are the higher plants, such as herbs and 
trees, in any way similar to simple plants, such as yeast and pond 
scum? 10. Why are green plants called independent; fungi, de- 
pendent plants? 



CHAPTER 111 



STRUCTURE OF SEEDS 



15. Germinating Seeds. The '' higher plants " have 
their round of hfe from the seed to the mature plant, 
forming roots, stems, branches, leaves and flowers. 
Many crops of the farm and garden are started each 
year from seed. We should observe a number of the 
larger kinds of seeds, such as corn, beans, peas, cotton, 
squash, sunflower, castor beans, and any other large 
seeds that may be easily secured. After we have closely 
examined them as to their size, texture of their coverings, 
and other quali- 
ties, a number of 
each kind should 
be planted and 
observed in the 
schoolroom while 
they are germi- 
nating. They may 
be planted out-of-doors if the weather is warm, but it 
will be much better to plant them in boxes of moist, 
clean sand or sawdust. A shallow box, 3 or 4 inches 
deep, Hke the gardener's flat (Fig. 7), will answer the 
purpose very well. After the seeds are planted, the 
box should be kept in a warm place. It may be kept 
covered with a pane of glass, to prevent the sand 
from drying out too rapidly. The student's ger- 
minating seeds will furnish fine study material for the 
class. 




. Gardeners' flats. A, showing holes for 
drainage. B, filled with sand or loam ready for 
planting. 



(«) 




10 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 

15a. Have the pupils make a list of all the common plants 
with which they are familiar that are started from seeds; also, those 
that are started from bulbs, roots, and cuttings. 

16. Structure of Seeds. When we look at a bean, we 
see it is covered with a thin skin, or ''seed-coat/' which 
is quite smooth except at the edge where it was attached 
to the bean pod. Now, if we remove this coat from a 

seed (using one that has been 
soaked in water over-night), two 
large, thick " seed leaves," or 
cotyledons (cot-y-le-dons), joined 
to a minute stem, may be seen. 
(Fig. 8.) One end of the stem is 
round and plump, while the other 
bears two tiny leaves. The latter 
Fig. 8. Bean seed split open ig the stem end, and bears the 

to show parts of plantlet i i rr^i ,. t- 

young bud. The root grows from 
the other end. Thus we see that the bean has all the 
parts of a plant, but a very small or embryo plant. 

17. Stored-up Food in Seeds. Plants need food to 
build up their bodies and provide energy, just as animals 
do. The cotyledons do not look like ordinary leaves, 
because they are filled with much starch and other 
substances, to nourish the plantlet when it begins to 
grow. Substances stored up in seeds like this are called 
'' reserve foods.'' The reserve food in the case of the 
bean is largely starch. In some plants it is largely oil, 
as in cotton seed, sunflower, pecan, flax, etc. Besides 
starch and oils, another class of substances is present 
as a reserve food of all kinds of seeds, called pro- 
teids. Proteids from animal bodies are familiar, as the 
whites and yolks of eggs, clabber of milk, clot of 
blood, etc. 



Structure of Seeds 



11 




18. Corn. The corn " grain " is covered with a clear 
skin, or seed-coat.* If we cut through a corn grain, as 
shown in Fig. 9, we see a yellowish oily 
germ, or embryo, on one side, and a large 
starchy mass of additional reserve food 
stored back of the germ. When the re- 
serve food is stored outside of the germ, 
it is called endosperm. The endosperm in 
the corn grain exists in two layers, one 
of which is starchy and loose, and the 
other clear and hard. 

19. Cotton. In cotton, the seed-coat 
is covered with a layer of fibers, or lint. 
The hard brownish coat encloses an em- 
bryo cotton plant, with leaves closely 
rolled around the stem. The parts are 
best made out in seeds that have just 
germinated. Cotton seeds are very rich 
in oils and proteids. 

QUESTIONS 

1. In what other ways than by seeds may plants 
start new individuals? 2. Name the parts of a plant 
that are enclosed in a bean seed. Describe them as 
they are in the seed, 3. Of what use are the cotyledons? 4. What 
is meant by reserve food? 5. What substances may be present in 
reserve foods? 6. Describe the corn seed. 7. What is the essential 
difference between the bean seed and the corn seed? 8. Describe 
the cotton seed. 9. Is it most like the corn seed, or the bean seed? 
that is, in what part of the seed is the reserve food stored? 

*In reality, the covering of a grain of corn is double, but the two coats are 
so closely united that it is difficult to distinguish them without special prepa- 
ration. The outer coat corresponds to the pod, or seed-case, as in beans. 



Fig. 9. Section of 
a grain of corn 
showing the 
parts of the germ 
or embryo corn 
plant (A, B and 
E), and position 
of reserve food 
A, root end and 
B shoot end of 
embryo; E, the 
part of the em- 
bryo that ab- 
sorbs the reserve 
food during ger- 
mination; C, soft 
starch; D, horny 
part of reserve 
food. 



CHAPTER lY 



HOW SEEDLINGS GET ESTABLISHED 



20. Germination. Germinating seeds must have 
water, air, and a certain amount of warmth. The prompt- 
ness of germination depends on how 
well these conditions are provided. 
In three or four days, seeds sown in 
moist sand will be found to be very 
much larger. They have absorbed 
water from the sand, so much so 
that the weight of the seed is now 
much greater than when it was dry. 
In some, the coverings of the seed 
will be found broken, and tiny roots 
pushing through. If they are watched 
for some days, it will be found that 
this tiny root grows in a downward 
direction, regardless of the position 
of the seed. The root makes a con- 
siderable growth before the young 
stem, with its tiny leaves, gets out 
of the seed case. (Fig. 10.) When 
the embryo plant inside the case 
begins to grow, we say the seed is 
germinating. 
Fig. 10. During the early 21. Root-haifs. The tiny rootlets 

?he^'roof gfr^'TaS ^hich we fouud pushiug through 
2'^shoorc'star^hy°en- ^'^^ ^^^^ ^^^* are just hke the thou- 
dosperm. D, homy en- gands of branches found on roots of 

dosperm. 




(12) 



How Seedlings Get Established 



13 



On a seedling with root- 
long, notice 



older plants. They are very delicate, 
and it is better to grow the roots in 
moist air, to see the many minute 
root-hairs 

lets an inch or more 
that just back of the tip it is covered 
with a very fine fuzzy growth. This 
fuzzy growth is composed of thou- 
sands of slender tube-like cells, called 
root-hairs. (Figs. 11 and 12.) 

They are formed near the root's 
tip. After a time they die. They 
cannot be found on the root except 
for a short way from the tip. Unless 
the soil is very carefully washed from 
the rootlets, the root-hairs may not 
been seen. (Fig. 11, B.) 

22. How the Root Absorbs Water. 
Even though the seedlings that have 
been growing in sand or sawdust be 
very carefully washed, much of the 
adheres to the hairs. (Fig. 12.) The root 



m A B 




Fig 12. Root-hairs of corn seedling with 
soil particles adhering closely. 



Fig. 11. Seedlings of 
mustard. A, with 
particles of soil cling- 
ing to root-hairs. B, 
after removal of soil 
by a stream of water. 
After Sachs. 

sand or sawdust 
-hairs hold the soil 
particles to the 
root. When the 
roots are growing 
in moist air, they 
are straight; but 
in the soil the 
hairs apply them- 
selves very closely 
to the soil parti- 
cles. (Fig. 13.) 
The water ab- 



14 Eleinentary Principles of Agriculture 

sorbed by the root is first taken in by the root-hairs. 
The seedhngs may be growing in soil so dry that water 
may not be pressed out of it, still, the soil particles are 
covered with a film of moisture from which the root& 
absorb their supply. (See Fig. 40.) 

23. How the Root Grows. The root grows only at the 
tip. The tip does not grow straight through the soil.. 




Fig. 13. Diagram of a portion of soil penetrated by root-hairs, h, h' , arising 
from root, e. At z, s, s' the hair has grown into contact with some of the 
soil particles, T, which are surrounded by water films (shaded by parallel 
lines). After Sachs. 

but bends to and fro in a sort of circle, taking 
advantage of the small openings between the soil par- 
ticles. It is covered with a delicate root-cap. As the 
root lengthens, the cells of the cap are rubbed off, but 
new ones are formed to take their place. Only the region 
in front of the root-hairs has the power of lengthening. 
(Fig. 14.) 

24. Absorption of Water by Seeds. Seeds absorb 
water from the soil particles. When dry seeds are placed 
in a bed of moist sand or loam, the little film of moisture 
that covers the soil particles is absorbed by the seeds. 



How Seedlings Get Established 



15 



Seeds will not absorb enough water from moist air to 
make them germinate. They must be in contact with 
a film of water. 

24a. The Swelling of Seeds. Place some common beans in a 
glass of water, and observe every few minutes. Wliere does the 
seed coat wrinkle first? 

24b. Rate of Absorption Affected by the 
Amount of Water Present. Place a dozen \V 




B 



in a glass of 
water, a second dozen 
in w^et sand, and a 
third dozen in slightly 
damp sand. Examine 
every day, and judge 
the amount of water 
absorbed, by the in- 
creased size and weight 
of the seeds. 

24c. Rate of Ab- 
sorption Affected by the 
Number of Points of 
Contact. Take two lots 
of seeds, corn for ex- 
ample, and place each 
lot in a tumbler or 
other vessel with the 
same amount of moist 
sawdust. In one, 
sprinkle a layer of 
sawdust, and then a layer of seeds, then another layer of each, 
taking care that in one the saw-dust is not pressed down, but kept 
very loose. Prepare the second vessel just as above, but press the 
sawdust firmly around the seeds. This increases the number of 
points of contact between the sawdust and the seeds. Cover, to 
prevent drying out, and examine the seeds at the end of every 
twelve hours. Does pressing the saw-dust about the seeds make 
them swell more quickly? 

24d. Prompt Absorption Hastens Germination. Sow some peas in 
a gardener's flat, filled with very loose sawdust. Press the sawdust 



Fig. 14. A, a young root of the pea 
marked with fine lines of water- 
proof ink into 13 spaces. B, the 
same root, 24 hours later, showing 
elongation only in terminal 5 
spaces. The rate of growth is 
greatest in the second and third 
spaces and slow in the first, fourth 
and fifth. Magnified 2 diam; C, tip 
of root greatly magnified and shown 
in section . w, root-cap; i, younger part of 
cap; i, dead cells separating from cap; s, 
growing point; p, central cylinder. 



16 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 

down firmly on one end and leave loose on the other. Cover with 
a glass, to prevent drying out, and note the time required for ger- 
mination in the two ends. 

25. Other Conditions affecting the rate of absorption 
of water by the seeds, are temperature, the nature 
of the seed-coat, etc. The seed covering of most culti- 
vated plants will absorb and transmit the soil-water 
quite freely, though many seeds are provided with thick, 
bony shells, or coats, that resist the action of water for 
weeks, even months, if they once become dry. Such 
seeds are the peach, locust, walnuts, and most wild 
seeds. Germination may sometimes be hastened in 
such seeds by soaking in warm water before planting; 
freezing while moist aids and hastens others, especially 
those having thick, hard shells, such as peach, walnut, 
hickory, plum, etc. 

26. How Warmth Affects Germination. A certain 
degree of warmth is necessary before seeds will germi- 
nate. If we had placed in a refrigerator the seeds used 
in the experiment described in Tj 15, the corn and 
beans would not have germinated, although they 
had plenty of water and air. This shows that a certain 
amount of warmth is necessary for germination. Some 
seeds, however, will germinate at a very low temperature, 
though they do not germinate quickly. The lowest 
temperature at which seeds will germinate is called 
the " minimum germination temperature." The high- 
est temperature at which they can germinate and hve 
is called the '' maximum germination temperature." 
Between the highest and the lowest there is a temperature 
at which germination takes place quickly, but without 
injury to the seedlings. This is called the " optimum 
germination temperature." These temperatures have 



How Seedlings Get Established 



17 



been determined by trial for many kinds of seeds. 
The following results were reported by the celebrated 
German botanist, Julius Sachs:* 



Effect of Temperature on Germination 



Kind of Seeds 



Oats 

Pea 

Wheat 

Indian Corn 
Sunflower. . 
Pumpkin. . . 

Melon 

Alfalfa 



Minimum or low- 
est between 



Fahr. 
32- 41° 
32- 41° 
32- 41° 
41- 51° 
41- 51° 
51- 61° 
60- 65° 
99-111° 



Optimum or best 
between 



Maximum or 
highest be- 
tween 



Fahr. 

77- 88° 
77- 88° 
77- 88° 
99-111° 
88- 99° 
93-111° 
88- 99° 
99-111° 



Fahr. 

88- 99° 

88- 99° 

88-108° 

111-122° 

99-111° 

111-122° 

111-122° 

111-122° 



27. The Soil Should Be Warm before seeds are planted. 
If the soil is cold, or has a temperature just above the 
minimum temperature, germination will be slow, and 
many seeds will rot before the seedhng is established. 
The soil should be considerably above the minimum 
temperature before seeds are planted. The variation 
in the minimum temperature required for germination 
in different kinds of seeds explains why some seeds can 
be planted much earUer than others. 

28. Effect of Temperature on the Promptness of 
Germination. In some tests made by Professor Haber- 
landt, it was found that the seeds of most of the small 
grain crops required five to seven days to begin germi- 
nation at 41° Fahr., while at 51° Fahr. only half the 
time was required. At 65° Fahr., one day was sufficient 

*Julius Sachs, esteemed as the founder of modern plant physiology, was 
born in Breslau, 1832, and died in 1897. The great interest aroused by the 
results of his investigations on plant nutrition led to the establishment of one 
of the first public institutions for the scientific study of agricultural problems 



18 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 

for wheat, rye and oats. Corn required three days, 
and tobacco six days. Sugar beets germinated in 
twenty-two days when the temperature was 41° Fahr., 
while, at 65° Fahr., germination commenced on the 
third day. (See ^\ 94, Temperature of Soils.) 

29. Germinating Seeds Need Air. Growing plants, 
including germinating seeds, must have air. They use 
the oxygen of the air, and we call it respiration, just as 
we do in animals. While plants do not have lungs, they 
absorb the oxygen of the air and give off 'carbon dioxid. 
(But see ^ 48, Carbon Assimilation.) 

29a. To show that germinating seeds use the oxygen of the air, 
take two large fruit jars with good rubber bands. Into one put noth- 
ing. Into the other put a big handful of soaked seeds of corn or 
peas. Screw the tops on tightly and let S|tand for about twelve hours. 
Then carefully remove the top from the empty jar and thrust a 
hghted splinter down to near the bottom of the jar, noting the dura- 
tion and brilliancy of the burning taper. The taper goes out after 
a time, because the burning of the wood uses up the oxygen in the 
jar. Now thrust a lighted paper into the jar with the germinating 
seeds, noting if it burns as brightly as in the empty jar. It goes out 
quickly because the germinating seeds have used up all the oxygen, 
and that carbon dioxid is present may be proven by lime water 
poured down the side of each jar. The empty one gives no result, 
while the other will show a white band on the inside of the jar. This 
is the test for carbon dioxid.* 

30. Not All Seeds Germinate. Seeds often fail to ger- 
minate when given the proper conditions for germina- 
tion. This may be due to one or more causes. They 
may be too old; they may have been gathered when 
immature; they may have become too dry, or frozen 
when not sufficiently dry. Sometimes they become 

*Carbon dioxid, exhaled from the lungs of animals and by germinating 
seeds, is a gas formed by the union of two elements — carbon and oxygen. Oxygen 
is a gas forming a large part of the air; carbon is a solid familiar as charcoal, 
which is crude carbon. 



How Seedlings Get Established 



19 



damp and spoiled by molds. In many cases, insects 
injure them while stored. It is not usually possible to 
tell if seeds will germinate by looking at them. 

31. Testing Seeds for Germinating Powers. If there 
is reason to think that a particular lot of seeds are not 
practically sound, they should be tested. It is a simple 
matter to test the germinating power of a sample of 
seeds. Several forms of seed-testing apparatus may be 
easily provided. Any arrangement will do that will 
allow us to place a counted number of seeds under the 
proper conditions for 
germination. Small 
seeds may be placed 
between moistened 
layers of clean cloth 
or soft paper. It is 
best to wash the cloth 
in boiling water be- 
fore use, in order to 
lessen the liability to 
the growth of molds. 
Moist sand or saw- 
dust is very satisfac- 




15 A good seed tester. Clean sand and 
soup-plates 



later 



tory for large seeds like corn, beans, etc. We wil 
learn more about testing seeds for yielding power. 

31a. Farmer B bought two bushels of alfalfa seed at $9 per 
bushel, of which 95 per cent were viable, that is, capable of germi- 
nating. He was offered seed for $8 per bushel, of which only 75 
per cent would germinate. What was the actual cost of a bushel 
of live seed in each lot? 

32. How Deep Should Seeds be Planted? Seeds should 
be planted just deep enough to secure the conditions 
necessary for germination. The soil is warmer near the 



20 



Elementary Principles of Agriculture 




Fig. 16. Seed-testing devices 

surface, but also dryer. If planted too deep, it will 
take a longer time to begin germination, because the 
deeper ground is colder, particularly so in early spring. 
The seedling will be more exhausted before it reaches 
the surface if planted too deep. The seedling stage is a 
delicate one. Success, therefore, in getting a good stand 
will often depend on how well the soil has been pre- 
pared for the seeds. The soil intended for the seeds 
should be warm, moist and mellow. The particles should 
be so fine that the seed will be in contact with grains 

of soil on all sides. Small seeds, 
like tobacco, are merely pressed 
into the surface with a board. 
With such small seeds, special 
arrangements should be made 
to keep the surface from dry- 
ing out. 

33. In Planting Field Seeds, 
it is often desirable to put them 
sufficiently deep to allow for 
some drying out of the surface 
soil. If planted very near the 
surface, hot winds will often 
dry the soil before the seeds 
absorb enough water to ger- 
minate. In such dry spells it is 
sometimes desirable to compact 
This puts the surface particles' 
the seeds, and the moisture is 




Fig. 17. An easy way to observe 
the effect of planting seeds at 
different depths. 



the surface by rolling, 
in closer contact with 



How Seedlings Get Established 21 

absorbed more rapidly. In dry times the seeds often 
germinate more quickly in the tracks made by per- 
sons walking across the field. Gardeners often pack the 
surface with a spade or board or roller, after sowing 
the seeds. When moisture is scarce in the soil, as is quite 
often the case at the planting time of field seeds, a most 
practical and successful way to secure the germination 
of seeds in drills is to make the laying- off plow or 
tool cut a deep V-shaped furrow in the compact soil, 
into which the seeds are dropped and covered to the 
proper depth with ^ 

fine soil. This V- 





shaped furrow affords ~^ \^^^ j 

two banks of undis- ^.-'^v-/ .-o^s-scu 

turbed soil holding MM/jwMm'^ ~ ^^cw-^o^^ -' 

a supply 01 moisture 

Fig. 18. Planting seeds in the " water tur- 
lOr tne seed. (rig. lo.J row" insures a more even supply of 

34. Prompt Germi- moisture. 

nation Important. Seeds that germinate quickly give 
more vigorous plants. Besides, seeds in the ground 
may be destroyed by insects, or caused to rot by fungi 
and bacteria, or rains may come and make a hard crust 
on the surface through which they cannot grow. Vig- 
orous-growing weeds may crowd out slow-growing seed- 
lings. Prompt germination may be secured under field 
conditions by thoroughly preparing the seed bed, and 
delaying planting until the soil is warmed sufficiently 
for the kind of seed to be planted. 

35. Time Required to Complete Germination. The 
plantlets are nourished for a tirne by the reserve food 
in the seed. While the plantlet is dependent on this 
reserve food, it is called a "seedling." The root develops 
faster at first, with the result that the plantlet secures 



22 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 

a more permanent supply of moisture from the deeper 
layers. The roots grow down or downward, and the 
stem and leaves grow upward into the air. The time 
required for the completion of the seedling stage will 
vary with the kind of seed and the conditions which 
affect germination. When conditions favor quick ger- 
mination and rapid growth, the supply of reserve food 
is used up much sooner. Wheat seedlings will exhaust 
their reserve food in ten days in warm weather; but, if 
the temperature is low, it may be forty days before the 
plantlet is thoroughly estabUshed. 

The table below shows the effect on the time in 
coming up, of planting wheat at different depths, and 
the number of seedlings that grew. 

Proportion of seed 
Depth Time in comin? up that grew 

^ inch 11 days |^ 

1 inch 12 (lays all 

2 inches 18 days | 

3 inches 20 days | 

4 inches 21 days ^ 

5 inches 22 days f 

6 inches 23 days ^ 

36. Hotbeds. It is often desirable to grow seedlings 
under artificial conditions, so that the plants may be 
ready for transplanting when the warm season comes. 
Many tender garden plants, such as tomatoes and cab- 
bages, are propagated in this way. Coldframes and hot- 
beds are often used. A coldframe is an inclosed bed of 
soil that may be covered at night to protect from frost. 
A hotbed is an inclosed bed of soil, covered with glass. 
as shown in Fig. 19, which is warmed by the heat of 
fermenting compost placed below the bed of soil. Some- 
times steam pipes are run below the seed-bed to supply 
the warmth. 



How Seedlings Get Established 



23 



QUESTIONS 

1. Describe germination. 2. What are root-hairs? 3. What 
is their position on the roots? 4. What is the purpose of root-hairs? 
5. At what place does the root grow? 6. How is this growing region 
protected? 7. What are the conditions necessary for germination? 
8. Does the air contain enough moisture for germination? 9. Name 
some seeds whose seed-coats hinder quick germination. 10. How 
may this hindrance be overcome? 11. Why do not most seeds 
germinate in winter? 12. What is meant by "minimum germination 
temperature"? By "maximum germination temperature"? By 
"optimum"? 13. Discuss the relation of soil, and the time of 
planting, to these temperatures. 14. Give in substance Professor 
Haberlandt's experiment in regard to the effect of temperature on 
the promptness of germination. 15. What necessary food does the 
plant get from the air? Does the plant breathe in the same gas that 
we do? 16. Name some of the causes of failure in germination. 

17. What are some of the conditions of successful seed-planting? 

18. What are coldframes? hotbeds? 




Fig. 19. Hotbeds and coldframes. The upper figure is a coldframe. If let 
down into the soil and warmed by fermenting compost, it is called a hot- 
bed. A, Warm air; B, garden loam; C, fermenting compost; D, bank 
of soil. 



CHAPTER V 
PLANT SUBSTANCE 

37. The Body of a Plant, including stem, root, seeds, 
etc., is composed chiefly of framework material and 
reserve food. The framework material is never used 
by the plant for any other purpose. The reserve food 
contains a variety of substances. Sometimes this re- 
serve food is separated by mechanical means in an 
almost pure condition, such as starch from corn and 
potatoes, cooking oil from cotton seed, Unseed oil from 
flax seed, castor oil from castor beans, corn oil from 
corn, and peanut butter (a thick oil) from peanuts. 
When the starches and oils are thus removed, there 
still remain the bran and meal, which contain a variety 
of food substances. 

38. In Germinating Seeds, all the reserve food may 
be used to nourish the young plant. The substances 
in the thick cotyledons of the bean were seen to wither 
away as the seedling grew. The store of food for the 
young plant in the seed was put there by the parent 
plant. A corn grain will produce from one thousand 
to two thousand seeds and a large stalk. Where does 
the seedling get all the food materials to nourish so 
large a stalk, and lay up a large store for so many other 
seeds? Before we answer this question, we will try to 
find out something of the nature of the substances in 
plants. 

39. Composition of Plant Substance. Chemists have 
ways of separating the various substances found in 

(24) 



Plant Substance 25 

plants. They find that every plant contains a variety 
of substances, though the quantity and number vary 
in different kinds of plants. Some plants, as corn, con- 
tain much starch in their seeds, and but little in the 
stalk. Some plants have a large amount of sugar, as 
beets and sugar-cane, while others contain oil. These 
substances which we call starch, oils, sugars, proteids, 
resins, gums, acids, etc., are themselves compounds 
of a number of ''elements." The carbon mentioned in 
H 29 is an element. So are iron, sulphur, lead and the 
oxygen of the air. 

40. Compounds of Elements. A simple element is a 
substance of a pecuUar kind that cannot be reduced by 
analysis to any simpler state. When wood burns, the 
carbon (an element) of the wood combines with the 
oxygen (an element) of the air, to form an invisible 
gas, known as carbon dioxid (a compound). When iron 
" rusts," it has formed a compound with the oxygen 
of the air. In germinating seeds, the oxygen absorbed 
is afterward given off as carbon dioxid. Oxygen com- 
bines with another element which we call hydrogen, 
to form the substance we call water. Thus we see that 
the same element may combine with a number of other 
elements, making a different compound or substance 
with each combination. 

41. Substances Found in Plants are usually complex 
compounds of the simple elements; for instance, starch 
is a combination of carbon, oxygen and hydrogen, 
and the properties of the substance we call starch are 
different from any of its parts. Sugar is composed of 
these same elements, but has them combined in a 
different way. Wood is composed of the same three 
elements, yet combined in still a different way. 



26 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 

42. Protoplasm, or living substance; has the power 
to combine simple compounds to form the complex 
ones that compose the plant or animal body. Living 
green plants absorb water and mineral matter from the 
soil and carbon dioxid from the air, and with these form 
the complex plant substances. Light is needed by the 
leaves in making these combinations. 

43. Elements Necessary for Plant Growth. There 
are about eighty different elements known, but only 
about a dozen are actually used by plants. The follow- 
ing elements are necessary for the healthy growth of 
plants: (1) Carbon, absorbed by the leaves from the 
air as carbon dioxid; (2) oxygen and (3) hydrogen taken 
in as water; and the following, all taken in by the roots 
from the soil solutions as soluble salts: (4) nitrogen, 
(5) phosphorus, (6) potassium, (7) calcium, (8) magne- 
sium, (9) sulphur, (10) iron, and (11) chlorine. Other 
elements are often found in plants, but only the ones 
named above are really essential. If any one of these 
essential elements is withheld from the plant, the normal 
growth is impaired. The importance of the mineral 
substances to the welfare of plants will be discussed 
later. (See Chapters XII and XIII.) 

44. Non-essential Elements in Plants. Besides the 
essential elements named, plants usually contain other 
elements that are really not necessary for their normal 
growth. The most common ones are sodium (the prin- 
cipal element in common salt), and silicon, a constitu- 
ent of sand. 

45. The Amounts of the Elements in the Plant Body. 
About half of the plant substance is carbon. It is a 
part of practically all compounds found in plants. 
Oxygen and hydrogen, too, are parts of nearly all 



Plant Substance 27 

substances in plant and animal bodies. Nitrogen is 
always present in the living substance, or protoplasm. 
The other elements, usually called the '' mineral ele- 
ments,," while absolutely essential, occur only in small 
amounts, usually less than five per cent. These elements 
form the ^^ash," when plants are burned. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Name some of the reserve food substances. 2. What is 
meant by a "chemical element"? Name some common ones. 3. Do 
plants contain simple elements? Name three plant materials that 
contain the same elements combined differently. 4. By what 
means does the plant manufacture complex compounds out of 
simple compounds? 5. Name the elements essential for plant 
growth. 6. Name the most common non-essential elements in 
plants, 7. What are the proportions of the elements in plants? 



CHAPTER VI 
HOW THE PLANT INCREASES ITS SUBSTANCE 

46. The Work of Leaves. The leaves are the food 
factory of the plant. Perhaps you have never thought 
to ask why most leaves are flat. You will find a sugges- 
tion of the answer if you note that their flat faces 
are usually turned toward the source of the strong- 
est hght. Look at a tree, to note the position of the 
leaves, as seen from a distance and from among the 
branches. This position is an advantage to the leaf in 
carrying on its work, because it secures the greatest 
amount of energy from the sunlight for the food-making 
process. 

47. Structure of Leaves. A thin section of a leaf, 
when examined under a powerful microscope, is seen 




Fig. 20. Cross-section of a leaf through a "vein," or fibro-vascular bundle. 

Os, upper surface; }/s, under surface; o, layer of outside cells forming the 

epidermis; sp, Stoma; g, water duct; wb, phloem; hlz, wood of fibrovas- 
cular bundle. 

(28) 



How the Plant Increases Its Substance 



29 



to be composed of a great number of cells. The surface 
layer forms a skin, or '' epidermis," which keeps the 
cells within from ,,, 

drying. (Fig. ^#^'^- 
20.) The epi- 
dermis is in 
two layers. The 
outer, or cutin 
layer, is only a thin 
membrane which, while 
transparent, to allow the 
light to reach the inner 
tissues of the leaf, is 
impervious to water. 
The second layer is a tier ( 
which support the cutin layer 
epidermis is very efficient in keepin 
the water in the leaf. On 
side of the leaf, and on 1 
of some leaves, 
there are many -- " 

small openings, 
to let the car- 
bon dioxid en- 
ter and the 
excess of oxy- 
gen pass out 
when the plant is making food. (Fig. 21.) Some water 
escapes through these openings, or stomata (singular, 
stoma); but at night, when the food-making processes 
are not going on, these stomata close up, so that 
much less water escapes. 

47a. To get an idea of how well the epidermis protects the 




Fig. 21 . How the young plant gets its food. In the early 
stages it is nourished from the store of food in the 
cotyledons. When the green leaves unfold to the 
light they absorb the energy of the sunlight and 
cause the water to combine with the carbon dioxid 
of the air to form starches and other foods. 



30 Elementari/ Principles of Agriculture 

plant, take an apple or potato and peel off the epidermis and place 
in an exposed place beside an impeded specimen. Note how quickly 
the peeled specimen will shrivel and dry, while the other retains its 
form. 

48. Carbon Assimilation. The soft tissue between the 
upper and the lower epidermis is the real food factory 
of the plant. It is composed of several layers of cells, 
all arranged sponge-like, so that the carbon dioxid 
of the air can reach every cell. All these cells contain 
minute green bodies, called chloroplastids (chlo-ro- 
plast-ids). The green coloring matter in these bodies 
is formed only in the hght. It does not form in leaves 
growing in the dark. The yellowish stems of potatoes 
growing in dark cellars is a familiar example. The green 
color will disappear if plants are kept from the light. 
Advantage is taken of this property in ''blanching'^ 
celery. When the light shines on the leaves, the chloro- 
phyll absorbs the energy of the sun's ra3^s and forms 
the starches, sugars, etc., from the water and carbon 
dioxid. This process goes on through all daylight hours. 
(1) Light, (2) living cell with (3) chlorophijll, (4) water 
and (5) carbon dioxid must all be present. This explains 
why plants do not grow unless they get plenty of sun- 
hght. This process of making plant substance under 
the influence of sunUght is called ''carbon assimilatioin." 
It is not confined to the leaves, but takes place in any 
green cell when the other conditions exist. (See Figs. 
20 and 21.) 

49. How Green Plants Purify the Air. When carbon 
dioxid combines with water, the excess of free oxygen 
of the carbon compound escapes into the air. By this 
means, growing green plants purify the air. They take 
up the carbon dioxid given off from the lungs, or that 



How the Plant Increases Its Substance 31 

formed by burning of plant or animal bodies, and retain 
the carbon, the oxygen being set free. But this oxygen- 
izing power of plants is much less than is generally 
supposed; for the respiratory processes of plants, giving 
out carbon dioxid partially counteracts the effect of 
the assimilative process. Carbon assimilation does not 
take place rapidly in a subdued Hght, such as exists 
in an inclosed room. 

50. Importance of Carbon Assimilation. With one 
or two minor exceptions, this process of food-making 
is the only known means of increasing the supply of 
food for both plants and animals. We can now answer 
the question asked in ]| 38. By this process the corn 
plant is able to reproduce itself many fold and, also, 
" tall oaks from little acorns grow\" No animal has 
this power to form food substances from the simpler 
compounds. It is plain, therefore, that the -farmer's 
stock, and indeed all life, is dependent upon plant Hfe 
for food. More than one-half of everything grown on 
the farm is carbon drawn from the air. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Why are most leaves flat? 2. Describe the layers in a leaf. 
3. Which layer manufactures food? 4. Describe carefully how the 
carbon of the air gets into the leaf. 5. Is light necessary for the 
formation of the green color in leaves? 6. What is the effect of 
continued darkness on green plants? 7. Name the five necessary 
conditions for the making of plant substance. 8. Discuss the 
importance of food-making by plants. 



CHAPTER VII 
THE WATER IN PLANTS 

51. Why Plants Need Water. Plants use water in 
three essential ways: (1) It combines directly with 
carbon dioxid to form plant substance; (2) it acts as 
a solvent for the minerals absorbed from the soil; (3) it 
serves to make the plant rigid. Young, succulent stems 
are dependent on water for their rigidity. If water 
escapes, they wilt and lose the power of carrying on 
their work. Water is necessary for plants in other 
ways. It is present in all parts. 

52. The Movement of Water within the Plant. There 
are special channels for conducting the water from the 
roots to the stems and leaves. The water is absorbed 
by the roots and is transported in special water-conduct- 
ing vessels through the stem and leaves. These chan- 
nels may be easily marked by placing the soft stem of 
some plant in a glass of blueing or of diluted red ink. 
The coloring matter will be carried along with the water 
and the path through which it moves will be shown. 
This experiment should be made and closely observed 
by all. Cut cross-sections of the stem to notice the 
channels through which the water travels. Leafy stems 
of balsam, begonia, Johnson grass, poke-berry, and 
other common plants, make good illustrations. 

53. The Amount of Water in Plant Substance is con- 
siderable, as may be seen from the following table show- 
ing the approximate amount of water in a number of 
common plants. 

(32) 



The Water in Plants 33 

Approximate Amount of Water in Plants 



Alfalfa 

Prairie Hay . . . 

Corn Stalks. . . 
Potato Tubers 
Corn Grain . . . 

Turnips 

Grain straw. . . 
Sniall grains . . 



In fresh plants — 


In air-dry plants — 


water in 100 lbs. 


water in 100 lbs. 


Average 


Average 


72 


8.4 


70 


30.0 


82 


34.0 


75 






10.0 


91 




.... 


9.0 


.... 


9 to 12 



53a. How many pounds of water in a ton of freshly cut alfalfa? 
How many pounds of water in a ton of air-dry, or cured alfalfa? 

54. Loss of Water by Plants. Plants lose water through 
the stomata in their leaves, and their other parts to a 
slight extent. Some plants lose water very slowly, even 
under very dry conditions, as, for instance, the cactus 
on the dry, open prairies. It has been estimated that 
ordinary cultivated plants lose water by transpiration 
about one-fifth to one-tenth as fast as it would evapo- 
rate from a surface of free water. In times of drought, 
when the air is very dry, transpiration will be greater 
than under ordinary conditions. Hot, dry winds in- 
crease the rate at which water escapes from the plant. 
(See Tl 98, How Plants Dry the Soil.) 

55. Drought-resistant Varieties of cultivated plants 
have coverings that prevent the ready escape of water. 
This ma}" be seen in the varieties of corn imported 
from dry countries, which have thicker leaves and 
coarser shucks than the native kinds. 

QUESTIONS 

1. In what three ways do plants use water? 2. How does the 
plant get water? 3. How does the plant lose water? 4. How do 
drought-resisting plants prevent the escape of water? 



CHAPTER VIII 



STRUCTURE AND WORK OF STEMS 



56. The Primary Use of the Stem is to hold the leaves 
up where they may be fully exposed to the light. Sun- 
light furnishes the energy for the food-making work. 
Of course, when the leaves are more exposed to ^. 
the light and winds, evaporation is increased. H 
Therefore, stemmed plants need more water than ||m 
stemless ones. 

57. The Growing Point of the Stem 
is in the bud at the end. The cells at 
the growing tip are very small and 
delicate. The young sections, or inter- 
nodes,* grow in length, forming the 
stem. The stem length- 
ens by the multiplica- 
tion and growth of the 
cells. All the cells are 
much alike at first, but, 
as the cells lengthen, so 
does the stem. Many 
changes take place. 
Soon there are several 

kinds of cells and VeS- p-g 22. Cross-sectlon of a woody stem. 
qpIq ac! cjVinwn in Fio- 99 Upper one actual size, a, pith; b, d and 

SeiS, aSSnOWn m rig. ZZ. ^^ ^^^^^ ^^^^g. ^^ ^oody portion; /, 

Snmp «T*p plnno-a + prl phloem; g, h, and i, outer protective 

ome are eiongaxea, j^y^^.^ After Goodaie. 

*The use of the words nodes and internodes is made necessary by the double 
use of the word "joint." 

(34) 




Structure and Work of Stems 



35 



thick-walled, woody fibers, arranged with 
overlapping ends cemented together, thus 
stiffening the stem. The water-conducting 
vessels are surrounded by these woody 
fibers. In some grasses and grass-like 
plants, the water vessels and wood fibers 
are united into strands forming the 
''threads," or fibro - vascular bundles, 
embedded in a mass of soft pithy tissue. 
This condition is well illustrated in the 
stalks of corn. The strands (Fig. 23) in 
the pith are bundles of woody fibers sur- 
rounding the water-conducting channels. 
Plants having the veins of the leaves 
arranged like a net have the water-con- 
ducting vessels in the woody part. (Fig. 
22.) In young stems they exist as separate 




Fig. 23. Corn- 
stalk, showing 
fibro- vascular 
bundles, or 
" threads." 



B 







Fig. 24. Cross-section (B) and longi-section (A) of stem, greatly magnified. 
P, pith; d, d, water ducts; m, medullary rays; w, woody portion of stem; 
c, delicate cambium or growing cells; s, phloem of food-conducting cells; b, 
hard fibers; ck, cortex; e, epidermis. 



36 



Elementary Principles of Agriculture 




m 



my 



bundles, but with age become so numerous that they 
unite to form the soUd woody portion of the stem. 
Outside of this woody region is a layer of very thin- 
walled cells that are actively dividing and growing. 
This is the cambium layer. (Fig. 24c.) 

58. Cambium. The cambium is the region of active 
growth in the stem of plants with netted veined leaves. 
It causes the stem to increase in diameter by adding 
layers of cells each season, forming the annular rings. 

(Fig. 25.) The 
cambium cells on 
the inner side be- 
come wood cells 
and water ducts, 
while the cells on 
the outside are 
gradually trans- 
formed into the 
food-conducting 
channel, or phloem, 
just under the bark. The increasing thickening of the 
stem breaks the outer bark in long, vertical slits, and 
new bark is formed below. 

59. Wounds made by pruning, gnawing of rabbits, 
"breaking of branches, and other agencies, are often 
healed over by the growth of the cells of the cambium. 
Whenever the cambium cells form an extra growth in 
this way, it is called callus. Where large limbs are 
removed, it takes several years for the callus to grow 
over the wound. When trees are pruned, the exposed 
part should be heavily painted, to protect it till the 
callus can have time to grow over entirely. (See T| 186, 
How to Make the Cuts in Pruning,.) 






Fig. 25. Cross-section of an oak stem, showing 
the "annular" rings at J, which mark the 
close of the growing season. 



Structure and Work of Stems 



37 



60. The Phloem Portion of the Stem is important, 
because it is the channel through which the food sub- 
stances are carried from the leaves to the roots. The 
water moves up through the woody portion, but the 
food material moves in 
the phloem part of the 
stem. When land is cleared 
of large trees, the stumps 
will continue to form water 
sprouts for a long time, 
unless the trees are first 
''deadened." This is done 
by cutting off the bark 
entirely around the trunk 
of the tree, thus leaving a 
strip or girdle of the wood 
exposed. This does not 
cause the immediate death 
of the tree, because water 
can move up to the leaves 
through the stems, 
as before. How- 
ever, no food can 
pass down to the 
roots, and they 
finally die of star- 
vation. When the 
roots die, water is 
root -hairs are gone 




SOLUBLE 5UB5TANCE5i 



Fig. 26 



Diagram to show the path of move- 
ment of water and reserve food substances in 
stemmed plants. 



no longer absorbed, as the living 
. Girdling kills trees by starving 



the roots. (Fig. 26.) 

61. Roots May Die without Girdling. When fruit 
trees overbear, nearly all the food formed in the leaves 
goes to mature the fruit, and not enough goes down to 



38 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 

nourish the roots, hence the trees often die early in 
the following spring. Sometimes a severe drought pre- 
vents the trees from forming sufficient food, or insects, 
fungous diseases, or storms destroy all the leaves. All 
the reserve food is used up in an effort to form new 
leaves, and the roots die of starvation. Transplanted 
trees that fail to make a good growth often die at the 
beginning of the second spring, because of the exhaustion 
of their reserve food. 

62. Perennial Weeds and sprouts from stumps may 
be killed by constantly destroying all leaf growth. Even 
though it does not kill them completely the first season, 
it may weaken them to such an extent that they may 
be more easily killed by other means. If allowed to 
grow to considerable size, the roots will receive food 
materials sufficient to start vigorous new growth. 

63. Killing Johnson Grass. Grasses and weeds that 
form thick rootstocks are difficult to destroy. They 
may be killed much more easily if they are kept grazed 
down, so that the leaves do not have a chance to form 
a store of reserve food for rootstocks. The half- 
starved rootstock is much more easily killed than the 
fully nourished one. 

64. The Storage of Reserve Food. Annual plants use 
their food supplies as fast as formed, in developing the 
shoots and roots, and, particularly, in forming flowers 
and fruits. Some plants, like turnips, cabbage, radish, 
etc., store the surplus food in the stem, leaves or roots 
during the first season, and use it during the next season 
to nourish a large crop of seeds. If grown in warm cli- 
mates, these plants will complete the cycle in one sea- 
son. In plants that live from year to year (perennials), 
food is stored up in the stems and roots, to supply the 



Structure and Work of Stems 39 

needs of the dormant season, and also to form the new 
crop of root-hairS; leaves and flowers in the following 
spring. It is the reserve food in the stems that makes 
the callus and new roots in cuttings of roses, privet, 
grape, etc. (See, also, Tj 159.) 

QUESTIONS 

1. Where is the growing point of the stem? 2. What changes 
take place as the stem lengthens? 3. What is the difference in the 
arrangement of wood fibers and water vessels in the corn stalk 
and in plants with netted- veined leaves? 4. Where is the cambium, 
and what is its work? 5. How are the wounds on plants healed? 
6. What is the position and use of the phloem layer? 7. Why are 
trees girdled? 8. How else may the roots of a tree be starved to 
death? 9. How may perennial weecfe be killed? 10. How may 
Johnson grass be killed? 11. What are the uses of reserve food? 



CHAPTER IX 
THE PLANT AS RELATED TO THE SOIL 

65. The Welfare of Plants is dependent on the nature 
of their surroundings. In cultivation, the effort is to 
make and keep the environment favorable. In open- 
field culture, little can be done to change the air, the 
temperature, or the amount of light. While the diffi- 
culty of changing the environment of the plant above 
ground is great, much may be done to control the en- 
vironment under the ground. The fertility of the soil, 
the amount of water, the temperature, the supply of 
air, and other conditions affecting the growth of the 
root, may be readily changed. A knowledge, then, of 
the habits and needs of roots, and of how to make the 
soil conditions favorable, will be very practical 'infor- 
mation. 

66. Uses of the Soil to Plants, (a) Serves as a foot- 
hold. The roots enter the soil and act as braces to keep 
the plant in the proper position. Plants with long stems 
and heavy foliage must have strong roots to enable 
them to withstand the action of the winds and other 
forces that would displace them. 

(b) Supplies the plant with important mineral foods. 
The amount of food which the plant takes from the soil 
is small, as has already been seen, only about 5 per 
cent of its dry weight; yet, small as it is, these mineral 
foods are absolutely necessary. 

(c) The soil acts as a .storehouse for water. The plant 

(40) 



The Plant as Related to the Soil 



41 



must have a continuous supply of water. The soil is 
able to store up water in the tiny spaces that separate 
its particles. The roots penetrate the soil and take up 
this water as the plant needs it. Plants can not take 
up soUd food. All food substances must be dissolved 
before they can be 
absorbed. Hence, 
water is important, 
not only as a food, 
but also as a sol- 
vent for the particles 
of soil. The solutions 
pass through the thin, 
delicate membranes 
(cell-walls) of the cells 
(the root -hairs) by 
osmosis. 

(d) It retains and 
regulates the tempera- 
ture. 

66a. Absorption of 
Water by Roots Illustrated. 
The upward movement of 
water absorbed by plants 
may be easily illustrated 
in various ways. A good 
way is to cover the end 
of a lamp chimney with 
parchment paper, as shown 
in Fig. 27; then fill one- 
fourth full with syrup. Support the chimney in a vessel of water, 
with the syrup at the level of the water. After a time, it will be 
found higher, due to the absorption of water through the membrane. 
It acts like a large root-hair, which absorbs water from the soil 
and forces it upward into the stems and leaves. The water would 




Fig. 27. To illustrate the absorption of 
water by roots. The plant absorbs 
water against the force of gravity. So 
will a salt solution. 



42 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 

not be absorbed unless the chimney contained the sugary syrup 
or some similar substance. It will be recalled that syrup is boiled- 
down sap from cane plants. 

A solution of salt in the chimney would cause the water to be 
absorbed in the same way as the syrup, because salt, like sugar, 
makes the solution stronger and denser. Where two liquids are 
separated by a membrane, more water always goes through into 
the stronger solution. The bulk of the liquid in the chimney is thus 
increased, and is forced higher in the chimney. 

67. Conditions Favorable for Root Growth. Not all 

plants require the same conditions for perfect develop- 
ment. All require some degree of moisture. Some 
plants do best when their roots are totally submerged 
in water, as the water-lily. Some land plants will grow 
with their roots in water, though they do best when 
the roots are in soil that contains plenty of air as well 
as water. When roots grow in a moist and very fertile 
soil, they are short, but have hundreds of little branches. 
This gives them a large absorptive surface, enabling 
them to readily take up the water and mineral food. 
When the soil is poor, or insufficiently supplied with 
moisture, the roots grow long and slender and have 
few branches. This does not mean, as some suppose, 
that the roots are " searching for food." When in a 
fertile soil, roots multiply rapidly, because they are 
well nourished. When in a poor soil, where the mineral 
food and water are insufficient, the leaves are unable 
to supply the roots with enough sugar, oils, proteids, 
etc., to make the roots multiply and grow rapidly. 
It has already been observed that roots will not grow 
vigorously when the oxygen of the air is excluded. Plenty 
of air is necessary for vigorous growth. 

67a. To Show that Air is Necessary for Root Growth, use two 

jars, one filled with well-water, as shown in Fig. 28, and the other 



The Plant as Related to the Soil 



43 




with freshly boiled well-water. The water should be boiled to drive 
out all the oxygen, and a layer of cooking oil used to prevent more 
being absorbed from the air. Insert cuttings of willow or Wandering 
Jew, and keep in a warm place for a 
week or more. Note the time when 
the rootlets appear on the cuttings. 

68. Moisture Promotes Root 
Growth on Stems. A continu- 
ous supply of moisture stimulates 
root growth. Portions of stems 
kept in contact with moist soil for 
some time develop roots, as is often 
noticed in fallen corn stalks, to- 
mato vines, and potatoes. To make 
roots develop on cuttings of roses, 
figs, grapes, etc., we bury them in 
moist sand, loam, or sawdust. (See 
^ 194, Layerage.) 

69. The Ideal Soil for cultivated plants is one having 
an abundant supply of moisture, containing plenty of 
soluble plant food, and so porous that air can circulate 
freely and come in contact with the roots. The soil 
may be too dense, or so compact that the air and water 
cannot circulate. It may be too wet, — that is, have so 
much water that all the air is forced out. In very wet 
weather, the roots are often noticed growing out of the 
surface of the ground. 

70. Improving the Tilth of the Soil. We have already 
learned that the particles of the soil should be suffi- 
ciently fine for the root-hairs to grow between them. 
The particles may be so fine and so run together that 
neither the air nor the root-hairs can enter the soil. 
This condition is just as unfavorable for the roots as 
the coarse, lumpy soil. The texture, or physical con- 



Fig. 28. Arrangement for 
showing the effect of 
the exclusion of air on 
plant growth. A film of 
cooking oil prevents the 
boiled water from ab- 
sorbing oxygen from the 
air. 



44 Elementarij Principles of Agriculture 

dition, of the soil in either case would have less water- 
storage space, and be less hable to set free hberal supplies 
of plant food. Some soils are so porous and loose that 
the moisture drains away, and the air circulates so freely 
that they dry out too rapidly. 

71. Capillary Attraction is that force which causes 
water to rise in tubes or between particles of solid 
substances. The narrower the tube the higher will the 
liquid rise against the force of gravity. Fine-grained 
soils having smaller pores or spaces between their par- 
ticles than coarse-grained soils, will lift water from 
below nearer to the surface than will coarse-grained 
soils. They will also hold more moisture in satura- 
tion than coarse soils, hence, are generally the bet- 
ter. Therefore, thorough pulverization of the soil is 
beneficial. 

72. The Problem in Soil Management is to bring the 
soil to an ideal condition for the healthy growth of the 
roots. Some soils must have the particles made finer, 
and some must be made coarser by causing the finer 
particles to combine. 

73. How to Improve the Texture. Good texture is 
important and dependent on the size of the soil par- 
ticles. In soil treatment the object, then, is to find the 
best means of modifying the size of the particles until 
the soil is mellow and friable. There are three general 
ways of changing the texture of the soil: 

(a) By applying mechanical force, as in the opera- 
tions of spading, plowing, harrowing, etc. This acts 
directly to make the particles finer. If heavy clays 
or black waxy land are tilled while wet, the particles 
are forced closer together, and we say the soil is '' pud- 
dled." This is a brickmaker's term. In making brick, 



The Plant as Related to the Soil 



45 



the first effort is to destroy the granular texture, which 
is done by wetting and working the clay. Puddled 
clays do not crumble when dried before baking. Neither 
will a soil puddled by plowing when too wet crumble 
into fine particles in drying. (See Ij 105 and Fig. 40.) 

(b) By exposing the soil to the weathering influences 
of the air, frost, sun, snow, 
etc. When a lump or clod of 
stiff soil is left exposed to 
the alternate wetting of the 
rain and drying of the sun, 
it breaks up into many smaller 
particles and becomes mel- 
low. Without this weather- 
ing effect, much of our plow- 
ing would be worse than 
useless. The land often breaks 
up cloddy, but in time it 
becomes mellow and loose. 
(Fig. 29.) It requires time. 
In order that a soil may be 
in the best condition for seed- 
ing, plowing should be done 
long before planting time so 
that the weathering influences 
may have ample time to per- 
fomr their work thoroughly. 
Some soils will weather or 
crumble promptly, while 
others, like clay, require more time. Under this head 
should be included some of the effects following under- 
drainage. (See Fig. 41.) The surplus water is thus carried 
off and air takes its place, and the soil particles crumble. 




Fig. 29. Waiting for time and i 
rains to mellow down the clod? 



46 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 

* 

(c) By applying substances which act chemically 
or physically upon the particles. These are called amend- 
ments, or indirect fertilizers. Lime is a familiar example. 
It renders many stiff clay soils mellow, and cements or 
binds together the particles of a sandy soil. Fertilizers 
are also amendments, because they act to modify the 
texture of the soil as well as to supply mineral plant 
food. Evidence is not wanting that the good effects of a 
fertilizer are sometimes much greater than the amount 
of mineral food supplied would allow us to expect. This 
is probably due to the effect of the fertilizer on the 
texture of the soil particles. It is especially true of 
composts, for they serve not only to supply plant food, 
but also to improve the texture of the soil. 

74. The Texture of the Soil affects the yield of crops 
to a striking degree. To improve the texture is often 
equivalent to an application of a fertilizer. One farmer 
will raise as much on twenty-five acres as another will 
raise on forty acres. A gardener will raise as large a 
plant in a small pot of soil as a farmer does in a yard 
of soil. It seems that the surface exposed to the action 
of the root-hairs in the pot of soil may be equal to the 
yard of imperfectly prepared soil in the field. 

75. A Soil is in Good Tilth when the particles are small 
enough for all the root-hairs to find a surface upon which 
they may act. A soil in good tilth exposes a large sur- 
face to the slow action of water, air and roots. (Fig. 30.) 
A coarse, lumpy soil may contain an abundance of plant 
food' but still make poor crops. If we take a cube and cut 
it into halves, we increase the surface exposed by one-third ; 
we add two sides. By dividing again, we increase the 
surface in the same ratio. It will be seen that a lump of 
soil, when sufficiently fined to be in good tilth, exposes a 



The Plant as Related to the Soil 



47 




large surface to the action of the root-hairs. Professor 
King has figured out the result:* ''Suppose we take a 
marble exactly one inch in diameter. It will just slip 
inside a cube one inch on a side, and will hold a film 
of water 3.1416 square inches in area. But reduce the 
marble to one-tenth of an inch and at least 1,000 of them 
will be required to fill the 
cubic inch, and their aggre- 
gate surface area will be 
31.416 square inches. If, 
however, the diameter of 
these spheres be reduced to 
one-hundredth of an inch, 
1,000,000 of them will be 
required to fill a cubic inch 
and their total surface area 
will be 314.16 square inches. 
Suppose, again, that the soil 
particles have a diameter of 
one-thousandth of an inch. 
It will then require 1,000,- 
000,000 of them to com- 
pletely fill the cubic inch and 
their aggregate surface area 
must measure 3141.59 square 
inches." All in one cubic 
inch of soil. When all the 
surfaces are moist, it is then Fig. so. a 
perfectly plain why a fine soil will withstand more drought 
and give more root-feeding surface than a coarse soil. 

76. Root-Hairs Absorb Plant Food. Root-hairs absorb 
the water that covers the soil particles as thin films. 

*King, The Soil. 



'A 



-J 



(I tilth. 



48 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 

They also take in some of the substances that are dis- 
solved in the soil moisture. Root-hairs give off carbonic 
acid gas and possibly other acids, which help to dissolve 
some substances in the soil. This may be easily demon- 
strated by allowing roots to grow on a polished marble 
slab. 

77. The Amount of Root Growth is large. A plant 
must have a large root surface to absorb enough water 
to make up for the loss from a large leaf surface. A large 
leaf surface is, of course, beneficial, because it means so 
much more surface for absorbing the carbon dioxid and 
energy from the sun's rays. There must, however, be a 
balance between the activities of the root surface and 
the leaf surface. 

78. The Distribution of Roots in the soil varies with 
the kind and condition of the soil, but, roughly, the 




Fig. 31. When trees are dug up, the large roots are found spreading in the 
first few feet of soil. These roots had a spread of forty feet. 



The Plant as Related to the Soil 49 

roots are said to spread through an area equal to that 
shaded by the branches. Only in exceptional conditions 
do the roots extend very deeply into the soil. Even in 
forest trees, the most vigorous roots are found in the 
first foot or two of soil. In young trees, the tap-root 
is often noticed to grow directly down for some distance, 
but, when the trees are old, the side roots will be found 
to be many times larger. (See Fig. 31.) 

79. The Total Length of the Roots is very great. Hell- 
riegel* noted that a vigorous barley plant in a rich porous 
garden soil had one hundred and twenty-eight feet of 
roots, while another growing in coarse-grained, compact 
soil had only eighty feet of roots. One-fortieth of a cubic 
foot sufficed for these roots. It may be readily under- 
stood that all the soil was occupied. Professor Clark, 
after making a number of measurements, estimated that 
a vigorous pumpkin vine had fifteen miles of roots and 
gained one thousand feet per day. Professor King, of 
the Wisconsin Experiment Station, estimates that if 
all the roots of a vigorous corn plant were put end- 
to-end they would measure more than one mile in 
length. 

80. The Vertical Distribution of Roots is affected 
to a large extent by the depth of the plow line, particu- 
larly so on stiff clay soils. The roots extend much deeper 
in dry seasons than in wet ones. These facts have been 
found out by carefully washing the soil away from the 
roots, leaving them supported on poultry netting. 
These observations are easily explained when we con- 
sider the effect of tillage on soil conditions. Fig. 32 

*Herman Hellriegel (1831-1895) devoted his life to the study of the 
chemistry of plant nutrition. He was the first to discover the relation of the 
bacteria causing the tubercles on the roots of legumes to the fixation of free 
nitrogen. He made many other important discoveries in agricultural science. 



50 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 

illustrates the appearance of the roots of a corn plant 
at silking time. 

81. Shall Crops be Tilled Deep or Shallow? It is im- 
portant that we know the distribution of the roots in 
the soils that are cultivated with plows; otherwise we 
might plow too deep and destroy many roots. At one 
of the agricultural experiment stations it was found 
that thirty days after planting corn, at the second 




■f^i ''H>< 





Fig. 3i' \ii ill I. 1 ■ the root-growth of a com plant at silking time. 

After Hartley. United States Department of Agriculture. 

cultivation, the roots from the adjacent hills (three feet 
apart) had alread}' met. A few roots had reached a 
depth of twelve inches, but the bulk of the roots were 
within eight inches of the surface. Six inches from 
the hill, the main roots were within two or three inches 
of the surface. Midway between the drills they lay 
within four inches of the surface. Deep plowing at this 
time with shovel-pointed plows would certainly have 
injured many roots. 



The Plant as Related to the Soil 51 

82. The Condition of the Soil has great influence on 
the distribution of the roots. Where the surface layers 
are moist the roots will grow freely in these layers, but 
if dry spells come the plants will suffer more than plants 
that have been growing on soils less favorably supplied 
with moisture. This explains why it is best, in watering 
lawns, to give them a heavy drenching rather than a 
frequent sprinkhng of the surface, so that the water 
will soak down into the deeper layers. 

83. Grass-like Plants are without tap-roots. They 
form a number of fine roots near the surface, and are 
hence known as '^surface feeders." Other plants, like 
cotton, alfalfa, peanuts and beans, have strong tap-roots 
that branch out in the lower layers of soil, and are for 
this reason called ''deep feeders." We must not conclude 
from this that the small grains do not have deep-feeding 
roots. Notwithstanding the small diameter of the root 
branches, some of them penetrate the soil much below 
the surface layers, as illustrated in Fig. 32. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What conditions of open-field culture are under our control? 
2. What are the uses of soil to a plant? 3. What kinds of roots 
grow in moist, fertile soils? 4. What kind in poor soil? 5. What is 
an ideal soil for plants? 6. What conditions of soil particles prevent 
the right supply of food? 7. What are the three general ways of 
changing the texture of the soil? 8. When is a soil in good tilth? 

9. Why is it necessary for a plant to have a large root surface? 

10. What is the general rule as to the distribution of roots? 11. What 
is the effect of moisture on the downward distribution of roots? 

12. Shall crops be tilled deep or shallow? Discuss this question. 

13. Why are the grasses called surface feeders? 



CHAPTER X 
SOILS AND SOIL MANAGEMENT 

84. From what we have learned, we recognize that 
the proper management of soils should be such as to: 

(a) Provide the plant with an adequate supply of 
available soil moisture at all times. 

(b) Put the soil in such tilth that the roots can find 
abundant supplies of the important soil nutrients. 

(c) Provide for the removal of the surplus water 
(drainage) that would fill up the air spaces and prevent 
the proper development of the roots. 

(d) Make the soil sufficiently loose so that the oxygen 
of the air and the water in the soil may circulate freely. 

85. Classification of Soils. Before we can intelli- 
gently discuss the problems of soil management we should 
learn more about the properties of the different kinds 
of soils. By ''soil" we mean that layer of the earth's 
crust which is formed from finely broken-up rocks and 
decayed plants and animal remains. Soils are variously 
classified according to origin*, method of formation, 
chemical composition, physical properties, or adaptations 
to kinds of crops. It will be advisable for us first to 
learn more of the properties of the substances that 
compose the various kinds of soils. 

86. Origin of Soils. The geologist classifies soils 
according to their origin and conditions of formation. 
He tells us that all soils have been formed by the gradual 
breaking up of rocks. Fig. 33 shows a mountain of rock 

*See chapters on Erosion in any text-book on geology or physical geography. 

(52) 



Soils and Soil Management 



53 



being slowly but surely converted into soil. The large 
boulders break and fall from the cliffs, and by the weath- 
ing of the rains, frosts and other agencies, they are 
worn away. The finer particles are washed down the 
hillsides into the valley below, forming the rich valley 
soil. Soils formed in this way by the deposit of the 
sediment from running water are called sedimentary 
soils. In some cases the rocks break up and are not 




Fig. 33. Soil formation. Rain, frost and plants all assist in changing the moun- 
tains of rock into soil. After Hill. United States Geological Survey. 



54 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 

removed by flowing water. Such soils are referred 
to as residual soils. 

86a. Weigh a fruit jar and fill with the muddy water flowing 
from the field after a heavy rain. Let stand until the water is clear, 
and note the amount of soil in the bottom of the jar. 

86b. Weigh the jar again, pour off the clear water, leaving the 
thick sediment. Dry and weigh the sediment, and calculate the 
per cent of sediment in the muddy water. 

87. other Classifications. A convenient and natural 
•classification of soils is often made according to the 
color, texture and structure of the soil layers. We com- 
monly speak of a soil as consisting of a surface soil and 
a subsoil. 

The surface soil includes the top layer of soil — ^''that 
which is moistened by the rains, warmed by the sun, 
permeated by the atmosphere, in which the plant ex- 
tends its roots, gathers its soil-food, and which, by the 
decay of the subterranean organs of vegetation, ac- 
quires a content of humus." The surface soil may be 
subdivided further into surface soil and sub-surface soil; 
the surface soil proper, or soil mulch, including the layer 
of top soil that is moved about by the ordinary operations 
of tillage, and the sub-surface soil, referring to the layer 
■of surface soil that is just beneath the soil mulch, thus 
iDeing a part of the surface soil and yet is not stirred 
by ordinary inter-tillage. 

The subsoil is the layer just below the surface soil, 
and in all soils it is taken to mean the second layer, 
showing characteristic differences from the surface 
soil. Sometimes the subsoil, or a layer just beneath the 
top layer of the subsoil, may consist of a hard, stiff layer 
of clay or other compacted material, impermeable to 
water and air. This is spoken of as hard-pan. It is often 
absent altogether, or it may be at various depths. It 



Soils and Soil Management 55 

may be considered as a condition of the subsoil rather 
than as a different material, where it is composed 
of the same material as the subsoil. 

88. Sand. Sand is broken-up fragments of a mineral 
called quartz, or flint. It often occurs mixed with con- 
siderable quantities of coarse gravel. Pure white sand 
is almost valueless for agricultural purposes, because it 
supplies no needed mineral element. However, it rarely 
occurs pure, but mixed with other minerals that supply 
plant food. Sandy soils are usually classed as "light" 
soils because of the hght draft in plowing. They are in 
reality very heavy, for a cubic foot of air-dry sand will 
weigh over a hundred pounds, whereas an equal quan- 
tity of clay will weigh only about eighty pounds. The 
grains of sand are rounded, and so there are spaces be- 
tween them. This allows water and gases to move easily 
through sandy soils. Because of their open nature, sandy 
soils readily take in large quantities of water. For the 
same reason, they allow it to drain off or evaporate 
quickly. Sand has the property of absorbing and re- 
taining the heat of the sun's rays readily, and will, for 
this reason, warm up sooner than other soils and is, hence, 
preferred for growing early vegetables. 

89. Clay, in an agricultural sense, includes any soil 
composed largely of very fine particles, which gives the 
land a close, compact, adhesive nature. Clay, as used 
by chemists and potters, refers to the disintegrated mass 
of certain kinds of rocks. The several kinds of clay soils 
vary widely in chemical composition, physical proper- 
ties, and fertility. Usually, however, clay soils are very 
productive. Clay has the property of absorbing large 
quantities of water, often as much as from 50 to 75 
per cent of its own weight. Even the dry clay road 



56 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 

dust may have as much as 10 per cent of water. When 
wet, clays become sticky and impervious to water and 
air, and, of course, root growth cannot take place when 
the soil is in this condition. If kneaded or puddled by 
working at this time, it does not crumble on drying. 
Clay particles have a tendency to cling together in small 
lumps, or floccules, especially if lime is present. This 
makes them more open and porous, and lightens the 
draft in plowing. Water evaporates slowly from clay 
soils.* 

90. Calcareous, or Limy Soils. Many fertile soils 
contain large quantities of crumbled limestone (car- 
bonate of calcium). The presence of hme in a soil may 
be easily detected by the effervescence (giving off of 
gas) when treated with acids. Strong vinegar will 
answer. Try it on some lumps of soil. Finely pul- 
verized limestone has physical properties similar to 
clay. Lime tends to improve clay soils by making 
them more granular and porous. Lime also acts bene- 
ficially on sandy soils by increasing their water-hold- 
ing power. The fertile black lands of Texas contain 
from 5 to 40 per cent of carbonate of lime. Soils low 
in Ume often become sour or acid, (Tj 141). 

90a. Effect of Lime on Clay Soils. Take about three pounds of 
stiff clay soil and work into a soft plastic mass by wetting and 
kneading. Divide into three equal parts. Round one into a ball 
and put on a board. Work the second up with an equal volume of 
air-slaked lime, and the third with half as much air-slaked lime. 
Put all three on a board and let dry. Describe the results. What 
is the effect of the lime on clay soils? 

90b. Effect of Lime on Clay Particles. Clay settles slowly in water. 
The particles are so fine that they float in water like dust in the air. 
Rub up some clay in water until the water is turbid. Pour a little 

*Are the clay soils of your community classed as drought-resistant soils? 



Soils and Soil Management 57 

of this turbid water into lime water.* What happens to the particles 
of clay suspended in the water? 

91. Humus is the term applied to partly decayed 
plant and animal remains, and is well illustrated by 
the leaf-mold found under the trees in a dense forest. 
Humus gives to the soil a characteristic blackish color, 
and adds greatly to its fertility It improves the 
water-holding power in a noticeable degree, often 
to double the original water-storing power. It makes 
clay soils mellow and sandy soils compact. Humus is 
formed by the decay of the roots, leaves, etc., in virgin 
soils. The farmer is able to increase the humus in the 
soil by adding compost directly, and by plowing under 
straw and green crops, Uke cow-peas, etc. (See 11131, 
Green Manuring.) 

92. Examination of Soils.f An experimental study 
of the several kinds of soils, especially of those occurring 
in the school district, should be made, and, if a sufficient 
number of different kinds are not close at hand, others 
may be secured. These various kinds of soil consist of 
mixtures of varying amounts of sand, clay, limestone 
dust, and half-decayed plant remains. The fertility and 
water-holding power will bear some relation to the 
amounts of these separate substances composing the 
soil. 

*To prepare lime water, secure a large-mouthed bottle or fruit jar. Fill 
half-full with water. Add lime, a little at a time, until a good handful is used. 
Cork securely, to keep out the air, and let stand. The lime will settle to the 
bottom and the clear liquid above is lime water. 

tThe direct examination of the samples of soil, as outlined in this chapter' 
may be conducted by any boy or girl with little or no assistance from the teacher. 
A word of caution may be given to the student. He should be reasonably 
familiar with the theory of the work lie is to undertake, and what questions his 
results may answer. Too often he will want to say that he is "going to prove" 
so and so. He should be cautioned to " find out" if so and so is true or not true. 
This is the attitude of the true student. 



58 



Elementary Princi])les of Agriculture 



93. Size of Soil Particles. In recent studies on Ameri- 
can soils, much attention has been given to the deter- 
mination of the size of the particles in good agricul- 
tural soils. Fig. 34 
shows how two soils 
may differ in this 



iyj 




s 



r/f' ^J3 



ml 



respect. In noting 
the size of the soil 
particles, we should 
distinguish between 
the actual size of 
the minute particles 
or fragments of rocks 
and the soil floccules, 
or granules formed 
by the sticking to- 
gether of a number of 
very small particles. 
93a. Examination to 
Observe the Size of the 
Soil Granules. Secure a 
half-dozen lumps of soil 
from the moist layers 
beneath the surface, and 
put into a fruit jar three- 
fourths full of water. 
Screw on the top and 
shake vigorously for 
some minutes, and allow 
to settle. Describe the layers formed after standing one hour or 
more. Note the differences in size of the granules of the soil. Apply 
the same treatment to a handful of garden soil; to a sample of stiff 
clay soil. 

93b. Secure a good handful of soil and moisten and work till 
a very thin, even paste is formed. Place in a jar. as in H 92a, and 
shake. Allow to stand until the particles have all settled to the bot- 




Fig. 34. Showing the amounts of the particles 
of different size in two kinds of soils from 
Bureau of Seeds, United States Depart- 
ment of Agriculture. 



Soils and Soil Management 



59 



torn. Observe the different layers. The coarse material at the bot- 
tom is probably sand. Above this will be a layer of finer particles 
consisting largely of clay, the finest particles of which remain in 
suspension in the water, making it turbid. Small particles of vege- 
table matter may be found floating on the surface. 

Estimate the amount of sand and clay in the samples. What 
effect did working the soil into a paste have on the size of the granules? 

Make similar tests with a number of different kinds of soils. 
Make a table as shown below, and record your observation for each 
sample of soil. 

93c. Classify the soils examined according to the following 
scheme. Estimate the amounts of the sand or clay. 



I Per cent ! Color 
Kind of soil j of sand of fresh 
present soil 



Sandy 

Sandy loam. 

Loam 

Clay loam. . . 
Clay 



80-100 
60- 80 
40- 60 
20- 40 
0- 20 



Productive! Drought 

or unpro- resistant 

ductive or not 



Heavy 

or light 

draft 



Remarks 



93d. Weight of a Cubic Foot of Soil. It will not be necessary to 
use a full cubic foot. Small, rectangular boxes may be made and 
then carefully measured for their inside dimensions. The dirt 
may be put in these and weighed, and the results calculated to a 
cubic foot. Three-pound tomato cans, with the tops melted off, 
may be used in the same way. The samples of soils should be 
thoroughly dry and free from coarse lumps. Weighing should be 
very carefully made and recorded. A sample of every type of soils 
in the community should be used. 

94. Temperature of Soils. Soils have the power of 
absorbing the heat from the sun's rays. If they absorb 
the heat readily they are called warm soils, and if slowly, 
cold soils. Dry soils get warm much more quickly than 
moist soils. Barefooted boys know that the dry sands 
and fine clay road dust becomes warm more quickly 
than moist soils. 



60 



Elementary Principles of Agriculture 



IS 








n 
















\ 














\ 














\\ 




10' 




/ 






\ 


^ 






/ 






\j 








Ih 








\ 






r 












fl 


1 










5' 


^ 













Fig. 35. Temperature 
curves of dry and wet 
soils. 



The amount of water in the soil affects the tem- 
perature more than the kind of soil. Much heat is re- 
quired to warm and dry out wet 
soils. Most of the heat is consumed 
in evaporating the water. The 
evaporation of water from the soil 
may be compared to the evapo- 
ration of sweat from the body^ 
because it cools the soil, just as 
evaporation cools the body. 

The texture of the soil also 
affects the temperature. Coarse 
rocky or lumpy soils suffer from 
sudden changes in temperature. 
Loose and well- cultivated soils 
absorb and retain the sun's heat 
best; and the temperature in such soils is more uniform. 
The color of the soil affects the amount of heat 
absorbed from the sun's rays. Dark-colored bodies 
absorb the heat rays more readily than light ones. This 
explains why dark soils are warmer than light soils. 

94a. Absorption of Heat from the Sun by Dry Soils. Air-dry 
soils should be put into uniform vessels. Gardeners' flats are 
quite suitable. Insert ordinary dairy thermometers into the soil for 
about two inches and note the temperature in each box. Put the 
box in strong sunlight and make readings at 8, 10, 12, 2, 4, and 
6 o'clock. Record the readings of temperature on a sheet of paper 
ruled as shown in Fig. 35. 

94b. Rate of Cooling of Dry Soils. The same boxes used in ^ 93a 
may be used. Note readings when placed in sunlight at 8, 10, and 
12. Then put in shade and note the temperature at 2, 4, and 6. 
Which kind of soil cooled quickest? What soils retained their heat 
longer? Do the soils that warm quickly cool quickly? What soils 
would you class as "warm soils?" 

94c. Absorption of Heat by Moist Soils. Use same boxes of soils 



Soils and Soil Management 



61 



as above, but add same amount of water to each, and make 
readings when exposed to sunhght from 8 until 4. The cans or 
boxes should be weighed at the beginning, and, when through 
with the test in this experiment, weighed again for results in ^ 95a, 
noting loss of weight in each. 

94d. Loss of Heat by Moist Soils. As above in t 94b. The same 
boxes may be used. 

95. Soil Mulch. The rain falling on the surface 
causes the many fine lumps of soil to crumble and 
run together^ and leaves the surface covered by a closely 
compacted layer or crust. This condition of the soil is 
very favorable for the rapid evaporation of the capillary 
water. When the surface becomes dry, the water below 
will move rapidly to the surface and the soil will soon 
become dry. The thrifty farmer destroys this crust 
just as soon as the surface layer can be harrowed or 
plowed. He thus destroys the close capillary connection 
formed between the surface and sub-surface soil. The soil 
mulch should be two or three inches thick. (Fig. 36.) 

95a. Rate of Loss of Water. Use three-pound tomato cans. 
Put equal volume of air-dry soil of different kinds in each, and add 
same amount of water to each. At 4 o'clock each day, note the 
amount of water lost from each kind of soil during four separate 
days, and calculate the per cent of total water lost for each day. 
Record the results as shown in the following; table: 




Fig. 36. How cultivation retards surface evaporation. The position of ground 
water after fifty-nine days, and the per cent of water in tlie soil at different 
depths. The shaded plots were cultivated. After King, University of 
Wisconsin. 



62 



Elementary Principles of Agriculture 



Sandy soil .... 

Clay soil 

Garden soil . . 
Coarse gravel . 



Weight at begin- 
ning 



End of 
first 
day 



End of 

second 

day 



End of 
third 
day 



End of 

fourth 

day 



Per 
cent 



96b. Rate of Rise of Water Through Soils of Different Texture. 
For this test, a number of ordinary lamp chimneys serve very well, 
because the results may be easily observed. These may be secured at 
stores. Select three samples of soil: one sand, one clay, and one a soil 
with much humus. Prepare two chimneys of each kind of soil, as fol- 
lows: Close the tops of the chimneys with muslin. In number one, 
let the soil particles drop lightly into the chimney and remain very 
loose. In number two, pour in a little at a time and press slightly 

with a stick. Do not 
try to make too com- 
pact, lest the chim- 
ney be broken. Put 
all the chimneys in a 
vessel of water, as 
shown in Fig. 37, 
and note the rise of 
the moisture every 
recess hour. 

What effect does 
compacting the soils 
have on the quick- 
ness with which they 
absorb water in sand? 
In clay? In humus? 
Would the water 
percolate down through these soils in the same way; and rate? 
Try it. 

95c. Effect of Mulches on Evaporation of Water from Soils. 
Secure seven or eight three-pound tomato cans from which the 
tops have been melted carefully off to leave smooth rims. Fill 




Fig. 37. To test the rise of water through soils of 
different texture. 



Soils and Soil Management 



63 



three of the cans full to the upper edge with clean, dry sand or other 
soil. Fill the remaining ones within one inch of the top. Weigh 
the cans separately when dry, and add the 
same amount of water to each one and note the 
weight. Prepare the mulches as indicated below, 
and weigh again. Set in a convenient place 





Fig. 38. Consuming soil moisture. Loss in seven days: A, packed surface, 
8* oz. water; B, fine chopped straw, 2 oz. water; C, covered with loose sand, 
1 oz. water; D, dust mulch, 3 oz. water; E, young oat plants, 10 oz. water. 



where they will all be exposed to the same conditions. Weigh 
daily for one week or ten days, and record the loss of weight for 
each can on the following table. The difference in loss will approxi- 
mate the power of these separate mulches to retard evapora- 
tion from the surface. Give all the cans the same exposure to 
light and wind. 



Effect of Mulches on Evaporation 





First day 


Second day 


Third day 


No. of 
can 


Weight 


Loss 
of weight 


Weight 


Loss 
of weight 


Weight 


Loss 
of weight 


1 .... 

2 .... 

3 .... 

4 .... 

5 .... 

6 .... 

7 .... 















64 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 

1. Not mulched. (Check or control.) 

2. Surface cultivated one inch deep (soil mulch). 

3. Surface cultivated two inches deep (soil mulch). 

4. Mulch with one inch of coarse gravel, 

5. Mulch with one inch of sawdust. 

6. Mulch with one inch of fine sand. 

7. Mulch with one inch of fine cut straw. 
Which mulch is most effective? 

Which mulch is most practical under field conditions? 
What other conditions affect evaporation from the soil? 

96. Soil Moisture Retained by Cultivation. Professor 
King has investigated the efficiency of surface culti- 
vation in retaining water in the soil. A piece of fallow 
ground was divided into plots twelve feet wide, as shown 
in diagram in Fig. 36. Three were cultivated and two 
left fallow. The figures in the table show the per cent 
of water in the soil of each plot, at different depths, at 
the end of fifty-nine days. The average loss of water 
from the cultivated plots was 709.4 tons per acre, while 
in the non-cultivated plots the loss was 862.3 tons 
per acre. This makes the mean daily loss of water 
from the ground not cultivated 3.12 tons per acre 
greater than was that from the cultivated soil. 

97. "Dry-land Farming." In some sections of the 
country where the rainfall is so light that the trees and 
other large plants requiring large amounts of water 
will not grow, the soil mulch has been found to be an 
excellent conserver of soil moisture. A crop is grown 
only every other year. The fields are divided into 
two parts. One is planted in grain, and the other will 
be harrowed after each rain, or oftener, to form a mulch. 
In this way, the water is stored up one season for the 
next season's crop, and from twenty-five to fifty bushels 
of grain to the acre are harvested every other year. If 



Soils and Soil Management 65 

a crop were grown every year on all the land, the yield 
would not average ten bushels per acre. 

98. How Plants Dry the Soil. Do plants take moisture 
from the soil faster than ordinary evaporation? To get 
an answer to this question, fill four tomato cans with a 
good garden loam. In one plant nothing: in another, 
forty or fifty grains of oats; in another, five or six grains 
of corn. Put an elder stem or hollow cane on the side 
of each so that the plants can be watered from the 
bottom. If we put water on the surface, a crust will 
form that will cause the water to evaporate much faster. 
(Do any of our experiments justify this statement?) 
Pour just enough water down the tube to make the 
soil reasonably moist, but not too wet. Set in a warm 
place, and, when the seedlings are half an inch high, 
weigh the cans and determine the loss of moisture in 
the usual way. Keep the cans in a place where the 
plants can get a good light, but not where the sun 
would heat the earth too much. Sum up your results 
at the end of the first week, and answer the questions 
given above. Likewise, at the end of the second week. 

99. Absorptive Power of Soils. Soils have the power 
of absorbing many substances, particularly some that 
are valuable plant foods. The soil is a great purifier of 
water. Prepare two lamp chimneys as described in ^ 95b, 
and fill with good field or garden soil. Into one pour 
several ounces of water made deep blue with laundry 
blueing. Note the color of the water when it comes 
through the cloth below. Into the second chimney pour 
foul water made by leaching compost. Use as before. 

Wood ashes contain the salts left from the plant 
when the air-derived substances have been driven off 
by burning. It represents the valuable salts absorbed 



66 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 

from the soil. Take some home-made lye and taste a 
drop on the end of a broom straw. Allow to filter through 
the soil as above and try the taste of the drippings. 
Has the soil absorbed any of the salts? 

QUESTIONS 

1. What are the ends to be worked for in soil management? 
2. What is meant by "soil?" How does a geologist classify soils? 
4. What is the farmer's classification of the layers of soils? 5. Name 
the four chief components of soils. 6. What are the advantages 
and disadvantages of a sandy soil? 7. Of a clay soil? 8. Of a limy 
soil? 9. Of hmnus in soils? 10. What is the importance of the size 
of soil particles? 11. Which are more important, soil particles, or 
granules? 12. What does the farmer mean by heavy and light soils? 
13. What kind of soil warms up most quickly? 14. Why does the 
farmer harrow or plow up the crust formed by rains? 15. What is 
meant by dry-land farming? What is its advantage? 



CHAPTER XI 



WATER IN THE SOIL 



100. How the Water Exists in the Soil. From our ex- 
periments, we have noticed that the water in the soil 
may be classed as: 

(a) Free, or gravitation ivater, the water which flows 
under the influence of gravity and percolates down- 
ward. When the water collects below, we call it bottom, 
or ground, water, and the upper layer is called the 
water table. (See Figs. 36 and 41.) 

(b) Capillary water is held in the capillary spaces or 
pores of the soil and is not influenced by gravity, but 
moves upward, or in any direction where the soil is 
becoming drier. It is held in 

the soil by the same force 
which causes the whole of a 
rag to become wet when one 
end is placed in water, or 
which causes oil to rise in the 
wick of a lamp. The amount 
of capillary water, that is, 
the water which the soil may 
retain against the influence 
of gravity, depends on the 
size and form of the soil 
particles, and several other 
conditions. Where there is 
only capillary water in the 
soil, there is, of course, some 

(67) 



>->. 



>.^^ 



Fig. 39. Diagram to illustrate how 
the soil particles are covered by 
capillary water. 



68 



Elementary Principles of Agriculture 



air space, because the capillary films will not be thick 
enough to fill the spaces between the grains, espe- 
cially if the soil is coarse grained. This is the condition 
most favorable to the growth of roots, because both 
water and air are present. (Fig. 39.) 

(c) Hygroscopic water does not differ essentially from 
capillary water, except that it is held more firmly to 
the grains. Air-dry soil may still contain from one to 
ten per cent of hygroscopic water, — that is, water which 
may be driven off only by heating to the temperature 
of boiUng. Clay soils, in particular, often contain large 
amounts of hygroscopic moisture. 

1 00a. Rate of Percolation of Water Through Soils. Prepare lamp 
chimneys as in H 95b, filling them two-thirds full, using different 
kinds of soil. Quickly fill all the chimneys full to the top with water, 
and then notice the time required for water to begin dripping at 
the lower end. It will be well to place small -mouthed bottles 
under each chimney to collect the drippings. In this way the amount 
of water percolating through the different soils may be estimated. 
Which would be preferable in field conditions, for the water to per- 
colate rapidly or slowly? Discuss this question. 



Soil 


Time required for first 

flow from bottom of 

chimney 


Amount of water passed 
through chimney at end of 




First 
day 


Second 
day 


Third 
day 


1 
2 
3 











101. The Amount of Capillary Water which a soil may 
retain varies with the soil. This is ^ measure of the power 
of a soil to store up water. The following table, taken 
from Schubler"^, who first investigated this property 

*See Johnson, How Crops Feed. 



Water in the Soil 



69 



of soils, gives a good idea of the water-storing power of 
the different soils: 





Maximum capillary 
water 


Water lost in four 
hours 


Pure sand 


Per cent 

25 
29 
40 
51 

61 
70 

85 

89 

181 


Per cent 
88.4 


Lime sand 


75.9 


Clay soil (60% clay) 

Loam 

Heavy clay (80% clay) . . . 
Pure gray clay 


52.0 
47.5 
34.9 
31.9 


Fine carbonate of lime .... 
Garden mold 


28.0 
24.3 


Humus 


25.5 



The second column shows the per cent of water 
that evaporated in four hours, when spread over a given 
surface. It is seen that soils having capacity for large 
amounts of capillary water part with it very slowly. 

102. What amount of water is most favorable to 
the growth of plants? This has been experimentally 
studied by Hellriegel, who found that oats, wheat, 
and rye growing in sand able to hold twenty-five per 
cent capillary water made maximum yield with fifteen 
to twenty per cent water. He observed that the plants 
would grow with no less vigor when the soil contained 
even only 2.5 per cent water. Below this the plants 
would wilt. It is not generally true that the most 
favorable amount of moisture for the growth of a plant 
is the full capillary power of the soil, as might be inferred 
from the above results. The results of some investi- 
gations of the United States Department of Agriculture 
show that plants might suffer for lack of water (drought 
limit) when the soil contained 15 per cent moisture, 
while in other soils the plants were well supplied 



70 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 

when the soil contained onl}'' 4 per cent moisture. In 
some soils 20 per cent moisture caused injury, while 
in others only 10 per cent moisture acted injuriously 
on the plants. These figures indicate approximate 
amounts only. While the range from the ^^dry" to ^Svet" 
seems narrow, it should be remembered that 1 per cent 
difference in water in the first foot of soil would amount to 
a rainfall of only about 0.65 inch for clay soil and 0.50 
for sand, allowing 80 pounds per cubic foot for clay soil 
and 110 pounds for sand. Water weighs 62.31 pounds 
per cubic foot. One inch of rainfall completely absorbed 
would increase the percentage of moisture about six 
per cent. 

103. In Irrigation it is important to know how much 
water to apply. Injury may be done by applying too 
much water, besides causing undue expense in handling 
the water. 

103a. How much water should be applied to a sandy loam 
soil weighing 90 pounds per cubic foot to raise the moisture from 
3% to 20%? 

104. What Becomes of the Rain? The average annual 
rainfall at Guthrie, Oklahoma, is about thirty-two inches; 
that is, in a year's time, the rain, snow, and sleet would 
be sufficient to cover the surface thirty-two inches 
deep in water. In some parts of the South the rain- 
fall is fifty inches, and in other sections only about 
fifteen. What becomes of this large amount of water? 
Some of it runs off into the creeks before it can be 
absorbed by the soil. This is called the '^surface run-off," 
or simply surface water. This water is lost for the use 
of the plants. When the surface layers are hard and 
compact, the water can not be absorbed quickly, and 
may even flow off while the roots in the deeper la3^ers are 



Water in the Soil 71 

suffering from a lack of moisture. If the fields were 
kept well plowed; more of this water would soak into 
the soil and could latet* be used by the plants when dry 
times come. If more water soaks into the layer of tilled 
soil than it can retain by its capillary properties, it is 
absorbed by the sub-soil and may finally percolate 
down to the layer of rock or clay and flow off to form 
springs. It is much better for the farmer if the surface 
soil and the sub-soil are well supplied with water. The 
rains are usually not abundant in the season when they 
would be most beneficial in increasing the yield of the 
crops. This fact suggests all the more strongly the im- 
portance of studying the ways that may be used to : 

1. Increase the ready absorption of the rainfall ; 

2. Increase the water-storage power of the soil occu- 
pied by the roots (*[} 100) ; 

3. The efficiency of mulches in conserving the mois- 
ture. 

105. Increasing the Water-Storage Power of the soil 
may be accomplished in two ways: (a) By deep break- 
ing. This increases the pore space in the soil by making 
the granules of soil smaller. They, therefore, have more 
capillary space (H 95). Breaking should be done in 
the fall so that the winter rains may be absorbed. 








Fig. 40. Diagram to illustrate the effect of ideal plowing. The compactness of 
the soil is indicated by the density of the shading. Before plowing, there is a 
compact surface crust (s), below which the soil grows less compact as we go 
deeper; after plowing, this compact mass is broken up into a loose, friable 
mass of soil-crumbs, or floccules, with a consequent increase in the bulk of 
the furrow-slice (fs); compacted plow sole at pi. Modified after Hilgard. 



72 



Elementary Principles of Agriculture 




(b) By adding substopnces to 
the soil that increase its water- 
holding power, such as com- 
post and green manures 
(1[ 101). Increasing the water- 
storage power of the soil tends 
to lessen washing. The water 
''runs" after every little 
shower in the hard roadway, 
hut in the well-plowed field 
the rain is soon absorbed and 
passes to the deeper layers 
of soil. 

106. Amount of Water Re- 
quired to Mature a Crop. For 
every pound of dry matter 
made by growing corn, cotton, 
oats, etc., it has been esti- 
mated from many experi- 
ments that from two hundred 
to four hundred pounds of 
water are required. This in- 
cludes the entire plant above 
ground, regardless of that 
which is harvested. Accept- 
ing these figures as nearly 
correct, let us estimate how 
much of the rainfall is con- 
sumed in maturing a good 
crop of corn, cotton, oats, etc. 
In a field of corn making fifty 
bushels per acre the figures 
would be roughly as follows: 



Water in the Soil 73 

50 bushels corn (72 pounds to bushel). . .3,600 pounds 
Stalks and leaves 3,600 

Plant substance 7,200 " 

Approximate quantity of water required 

for each pound of plant substance. . . 300 " 

Water used by crop 2,160,000 " 

A cubic foot of water weighs 62.3 pounds. A rain-fall 
of one inch would be 5.19 pounds per square foot of 
soil, or 43,560 X 5.19= 226,175.40 pounds on an acre. 
Dividing 2,160,000 by 226,175.40, we find that less than 
ten inches of rainfall would be used by the plants in 
making fifty bushels of corn per acre. This does not 
include the water that would evaporate from the soil 
or be lost by the surface run-off. 

106a. At Stillwater, Oklahoma, the average annual rainfall is 
about 33 inches. What per cent of this would be required to make 
50 bushels per acre? What is the average rainfall in your county? 
See page 74. 

107. Soil Drainage. There are many places in low 
bottom lands on w^hich water accumulates to an injuri- 
ous extent, either from seepage from the hills or from 
the lack of an outlet for the surplus water in very wet 
spells. Again, there are low ^'sweeps," ''swags," ''runs," 
"sloughs," and the like, in which water stagnates to 
the detriment of the soil and the crops. Such places 
may often be greatly improved by making surface 
ditches or by placing drainage tiles (Fig. 41) to carry off 
the surplus water. In making open ditches it is better, 
if circumstances allow, to make them broad with sides 
sloping up about one foot in three or four. This will 
permit of the cultivation of the drainage-way, and leave 
no banks to harbor weeds or interfere with the driving 



74 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 

of the plows in any direction. Sometimes underground 
drainage ways are provided. These are often made by 
digging narrow ditches to the proper depth and filUng 
partly with coarse stones, logs, etc., before refiUing. The 
surplus water finds an outlet through the spaces between 
the stones. Regular drainage tiles are now most often 
used in place of loose stone. They may be secured in 
any size to suit the local conditions. Many fields have 
been greatly improved by placing rows of tile drains 
every thirty feet or so. The prompt drainage of some 
soils is just as important as the conservation of water 
in others. An excess of water delays the warming of the 
soil in spring, and prevents the growth of the roots. 

QUESTIONS 

1. In what three forms does water exist in the soil? 2. Explain 
capillary water. Hygroscopic water. 3. Between what per cents 
of water content do plants grow most vigorously? 4. Can an irri- 
gated field have too much water? 5. What becomes of the rains? 
6. What can the farmer do to make use of a greater amount of 
the average rainfall? 7. About how much water is used for every 
pound of dry matter made by growing cotton, or corn? 8. Why is 
soil drainage important? 9. How should open drains be made? 10. 
What is a tile drain? 



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CHAPTER XII 

RELATION OF THE PLANT TO THE CHEMICAL 
COMPOSITION OF THE SOIL 

"The soil is not only a sponge, from which the plant 
may obtain water, but it is also a storehouse of plant 
food and a laboratory in which the plant food is pre- 
pared and dissolved for the plant." — Osterhout, Ex- 
periments with Plants. 

108. In the preceding chapter, the relation of the 
plant to the water contained in the soil, and the means 
by which the water supply may be increased, have been 
discussed. These tillage operations not only cause the 
water to be retained for the use of the plants, but dis- 
solve the mineral food elements in the soil. While the 
amount, the kind, and the condition of these soil foods 
affect very greatly the fertility or agricultural value of 
a soil, we should remember that, without resort to 
means for improving the mechanical condition, many 
soils, naturally rich in plant food, would yield poor 
crops. We should study closely the relation of the 
chemical composition of the soil to the fruitfulness of 
the crops. 

109. The Essential Elements. By growing plants with 
their roots in a medium of known composition, plant 
physiologists have determined which elements of the 
soil are really necessary for the healthy, normal growth 
of the plant. By the same means they have been able 
to determine the effect of other substances. For these 
tests, the plants are usually grown in vessels thoroughly 

(76) ' 



Relation of the Plant to the Soil 



77 



cleaned and partly filled with distilled water (water cul- 
ures). or with pure sand (sand cultures), to which is 
added solutions containing the different substances 
supposed to be necessary for plants. These solutions are 
made similar in every respect to the solutions as they 
occur naturally in the soil. Plants have been grown to 
maturity in these artificial solutions side by side with 
ones just like them planted in the ground, 
and with equally satisfactory results. Where 
it was desired to determine if, say, potas- 
sium was really necessary, a solution was 
prepared having all the ingredients found 
in the soil waters except potassium, and in 
this the plants would be grown. Fig. 42 
shows the results of growing buckwheat in 
a complete or normal nutrient solution and 
also when certain important elements are 
withheld. It should be remembered that 
some potash, calcium, etc., was in the seed 
so that not all the mineral nutrients 
are kept from the plantlet. Sodium, 
while quite simi- 
lar to potassium 
can not replace 
potassium as a 
nutrient. 

110. Effect of 
Fertilizers. An- 
other way of 
r = testing the effect 

Fig 42 l.u \\\n It grown in artificial «!olutions of ^^ ^ SUDStaUCe 

mineial iiutnein-< 4, complete 'iolution ii, pota^ ,0 ^.^ rrvz-wTxr 4-Uf^ 

Slum withheld C, mtiogen ^Mthheld D, calcium ^^ ^^ grOW tne 

(lime) withheld; E, without potassium, but so- i-wlon + a ir. c^rkVY-iQ 

dium added. Drawn from photograph by Nobbe. piauib in bUUie 




78 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 

available soil and add the substances to the soil. This is 
called fertilizing the soil. Fig. 43 illustrates the effect 
of applying different fertilizing substances to a sandy 
soil taken from a field in Eastern Texas. Fig. 44 shows 
the effect of adding nitrogen, potassium and phosphorus 
to pot-cultures of alfalfa made at the Oklahoma Agri- 
cultural and Mechanical College. 




Fig. 43. Orangeburg fine sandy loam. An application of phosphoric acid is 
denoted bj' P; potash by K; nitrogen by N. 

111. The Quantity of Fertilizing Substances added ta 
the soil is but a small fraction of the increased weight of 
the crop which it produces. Minerals are absorbed by 
the plants in exceedingly small amounts, for they form 
only about one part in two hundred of the fresh, living 
plant, and rarely more than five per cent of the dry^ 
substance. They are necessary as food substance; they 
become a part of the living plant substance. Exceedingly 
small amounts suffice in the case of iron, sulphur, chlo- 



Relation of the Plant to the Soil 



79 



rine, calcium, and magnesium. Tlie substances named 
occur in nearly all soils in quantities sufficient to supply 
the plants abundantly. Other substances, as potassium, 
phosphorus and nitrogen, are more important, and must 
be supplied when necessary. (See table of fertilizing 
substances in feecl-stuffs in Appendix). 

112. The Form in Which Plants Take Up Their Mineral 
Food. These '* elements" occur in the soil as compounds 
with other substances. The soil is composed mostly of 




Fig. 44. Pot cultures of alfalfa showing effect of adding different fertilizers. 
D9, nothing; DIO, nitrogen; Dll, potassium, and D12,-phosphorus. Pho- 
tograph from Oklahoma Agricultural and Mechanical College. 

insoluble compounds, which the plants cannot use. The 
particles are very slowly changed into soluble compounds, 
and in this form are absorbed by the plants. The amount 
or per cent of soluble matter in the soil water at any 
one time is exceedingly small, as shown by the analysis 
of natural waters. In fact, if the amount should exceed 
ten parts in a thousand the effect would be unfavorable 
on the growth of the plant. The total amount of, say, 
potash in the soil may be several per cent of the total 
soil weight, yet the amount in solution at any time may 
rarely exceed fifty parts per million of water. It is well 



80 



Elementary Principles of Agriculture 



that this is so, for, otherwise, the valuable soil constitu- 
ents would be washed off to the sea by the percolating 
water. It is the great solubiUty of some substances, like 
nitrates, that explains their scarcity in the soil. 



Mineral Matter Dissolved in 100,000 Parts of 
Drainage Water. 





Field No. 1 


Field No. 2 


Field No. 3 


Potash 

Phosphoric acid 

Nitrogen compounds 

Soda 


trace 
trace 
10.27 
1.43 
6.93 
10.00 
16.25 

44.88 


trace 
0.17 
21.17 
3.10 
10.24 
10.57 
12.04 

57.29 


0.07 

trace 

2.79 

1.24 


Lime 

Soluble organic matter .... 
Other substances . 


2.23 
8.00 
6.89 


Total 


21.22 



113. Chemical Change in the Soil. The soil is the seat 
of constant changes, and these changes have great in- 
fluence on the productiveness of the soil. When the 
soil is plowed, the particles are exposed more to the 
action of the air, water, frost, etc. When humus is put 
into the soil, acids are formed as the humus decomposes, 
and these tend to dissolve the substances in the soil. 

114. Soil-Bacteria. Humus also encourages the growth 
of soil bacteria, because they live on plant and animal 
remains. These bacteria decompose the humus, and, 
in doing so, set free carbonic acid, which aids in dis- 
solving the particles of soil. Thus it is that the bacteria 
of decay act beneficially on the soil. Other species of 
bacteria cause the formation of nitrates from insoluble 
nitrogen compounds. No soil will long remain fertile 
unless the supply of organic matter is kept up. 



Relation of the Plant to the Soil 



81 



115. Effect of Wheat and Barley Grown Continuously 
on the Same Land. Some results from the famous ex- 
periments of Laws and Gilbert at the Rothamsted 
estate* are very instructive in showing the effect of 
growing crops continuously on the same soil. Wheat 
and barley, as well as other crops, have been grown on 
the same land through a series of years without manur- 
ing. Adjoining these non-fertihzecl crops were others 
treated annually with barnyard manure. Tests were 
also made of the effect of various other fertilizers. 
The results are given in averages for periods of eight 
years. They show that the annual application of manure 
increased the average annual yield twenty bushels per 
acre for wheat and thirty-two and one-eighth bushels for 
barley. 

Effect of Continuous Cropping With and 
Without Manuring. 





Wheat. Bus. per acre 


Barley. Bus. per acre 




Un- 
manured 


Manured 


Un- 
manured 


Manured 


8 years, 1844-51 

8 years, 1852-59 

8 years, 1860-67 

8 years 1868-75 


171 
16i 
131 
12i 
10^ 
121 
9i 

13i 


28 
341 
351 
35f 

28t 
39i 
33| 

331 


24i 

18 

141 

14f 

111 

101 

161 


44i 

52f 
491 


8 years, 1876-83 

8 years, 1884-91 

8 years, 1892-93 

Average 50 years 


521 
44f 

491 

48f 



*Rothamsted Estate, Hartfordshire, England, the home of noteworthy in- 
vestigations in agriculture under the Laws Agricultural Trust, was founded in 
1843 by Sir J. B. Laws. These investigations, directed by Sir Joseph Gilbert 
and the distinguished founder for more than half a century, have had great in- 
fluence in shaping the agricultural practices of the world. 



CHAPTER XIII 

IMPROVING THE CHEMICAL NATURE 
OF THE SOIL 

116. What Plants Remove from the Soil. The amount 
of mineral food substances removed from the soil by a 
bountiful harvest is considerable. The object of fertil- 
izing is not only to return to the soil the elements that 
help the growth of the crops, but also to improve the 
tilth. In applying fertiUzers, we should remember that 
our effort is to bring about a twofold result: (a) to supply 
mineral food, and (b) to improve the texture of the soil. 
While, ordinarily, we add substances supplying soluble 
salts containing nitrogen, potassium, and phosphorus, it 
should be remembered that equally beneficial results are 
sometimes secured by applying dressings of substances 
that do not contain any considerable quantities of these 
elements, as lime, plaster of Paris, or gypsum. The 
benefits derived from these substances are due to the 
effect they have on the physical properties of the soil. 
The lime may also cause the decomposition of insoluble 
particles containing potassium or phosphorus. (Fig. 45.) 

116a, Corn contains about 1.58 per cent of nitrogen; 0.37 per 
cent of potassium; and 0.57 per cent of phosphorus. How much of 
each does a crop of 50 bushels per acre remove from the soil? 

117. Not All Soils Need the Same Fertilizer. Experi- 
ments have shown that the chemical analysis of a soil 
does not give a farmer a satisfactory guide as to what 
fertilizer to apply to his land. The analysis might show 
a high per cent of potash, and yet it might be in such 

(82) 



Improving the Chemical Nature of the Soil 83 



BEEF 



BUTTER 



STRAWBERRIES 



1 


1^1 


2_ , < ■ 



A 




* o 



^. Showing the amounts of nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash removed 
from the soil when 1,000 pounds each of beef, milk, butter, and strawberries 
are sold. 



CORN 



WHEAT 



OATS 



^,-— 


t 1 




-^ ^ 


/. A ^ 




-- 


M 




: :'■ ■•"1 





fi. Showing the amounts of the three most important plant foods removed 
from the soil by growing 1,000 pounds each of corn, wheat, and oats. 



ALFALFA 



C Showing the amounts of the three principal 
plant-foods removed from and returned to 
the soil by 1,000 pounds each of cotton 
lint, cotton seed, and alfalfa. 



^ 



COTTON LINT 



COTTON SEED 



tMt 



Iff 

o. 

z 



mi 



2 

_i2 
O 

— ■a 

P 



X 

— -t« 
a 



Fig. 4^ 



Tables showing the amount of mineral food substances removed and 
returned to the soil by various crops. 



insoluble combinations that the plants could not absorb 
it. This would not be the general rule, however. Usu- 
ally, where the soil analysis shows a high per cent of 
an essential element, fertihzing with substances con- 
taining this element rarely give returns above the cost 
of the fertilizer. The only safe rule by which to learn 



84 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 

the needs of a particular field is to make trials, using 
a variety of fertilizers, and thus observe what fertiUzer 
gives most satisfactory results. These tests must be 
made for each soil formation. (See ^ 133.) 

118. Kinds of Fertilizers. Fertilizers are variously 
classed; according to the valuable element they supply, 
as nitrogenous fertilizers, phosphate fertilizers, com- 
plete or balanced fertilizers; or according to source, as 
home fertilizers, commercial fertilizers. In most instances 
the substances applied to the land contain more than 
one valuable element, as, for instance, composts, which, 
being made out of plant remains, contain all the mineral 
elements found in plants. 

119. Potassium Fertilizers. The most important 
source of potash fertilizers is the famous Stassfurt mines 
of Germany. The most common forms known to the 
markets are the sulphate, muriate and kainit— the latter 
a mixture of several salts. All are readily solul:>le and 
therefore are classed as ''quick fertilizers." Wood-ashes 
form an important source of potash, though their 
value depends much on the source, and the way in 
which they have been cared for. If leached out by the 
rains, their value as a fertilizer is much lessened. Lime 
and gypsum often have the effect of potash fertilizers, 
causing the decomposition of insoluble potash com- 
pounds in the soil, and thus indirectly acting as potash 
fertihzers. The "home-made lye" obtained from ashes 
is largely potash. 

120. Phosphorus Fertilizers. Phosphorus is an im- 
portant fertihzer. Three-fourths of the phosphorus 
absorbed from the soil is deposited in the grain of the 
crop, and is, therefore, ordinarily sold from the farm, 
while only one-fourth remains in the straw. Phos- 




Yield from one-tenth acre, with fertihzer containing phosphoric acid, 
nitrogen and potash. 

Fig. 46. Some soils are made more productive by fertilizers. 



86 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 

phorus compounds are widely distributed, though, 
usually, in insoluble compounds. Phosphorus is found 
in the soils combined with lime, magnesia, iron and 
alumina. For fertilizing purposes it is obtained from 
bones, oyster shells and rocks formed by the deposit of 
similar remains. In bones it exists as the insoluble 
lime phosphate. To overcome this, the rock or bone 
phosphates are treated with sulphuric acid which con- 
verts the insoluble into soluble compounds. When ap- 
plied to the soil it soon returns to the insoluble salt, 
dicalcium phosphate. This latter is soluble in the pres- 
ence of carbonic acid formed by the roots and decaying 
humus, and is hence readily available. (See ^ 76.) 
Phosphorus fertilizers do not give beneficial results when 
applied to soils containing an excess of lime, like most 
of the ''black waxy'' soils. 

Bone-black, formed by heating raw bones in the 
presence of air, is used in large quantities by sugar 
refineries. When it has served its purpose, it becomes a 
waste product and is sold for fertilizing. It has little 
value until treated with sulphuric acid. Bone-meal is 
the fresh bone ground and steamed and contains some 
nitrogenous matters in addition to the phosphorus. 
It dissolves very slowly. 

The commercial supplies of phosphates are bones, 
and phosphate rocks. The latter are mined in large 
quantities in South CaroHna, Florida, Tennessee, Vir- 
ginia and Pennsylvania. 

121. Nitrogenous Fertilizers. Nitrogen is absorbed 
by plants as nitrates. The most readily available form 
is the "Chili saltpeter," found in large quantities in 
rainless regions on the western coast of South America. 
As it occurs naturally in the ''saltpeter beds" it contains 



Improving the Chemical Nature of the Soil 87 

a large amount of salt, but when prepared for commerce 
it is quite pure nitrate of soda. This is the form most 
used on quick-growing truck crops. It is readily soluble 
and, therefore, easily washed out of the soil. (See H 127, 
Nitrification.) 

Sulphate of ammonia is obtained as a by-product 
in the manufacture of illuminating gas from coal, and 
from the distillation of bone in the manufacture of bone- 
black. It is a very concentrated fertilizer, containing 
about twenty per cent nitrogen. Ammonia salts may 
be absorbed by some plants, but they are readily con- 
verted into the nitrates by the nitrifying bacteria and 
are usually absorbed in this form. 

122. Guano, obtained from the habitation of flesh- 
eating birds roosting in caves and sea islands, has long 
been used as a fertilizer. Dried fish, blood, hair, leather, 
and various other substances of animal origin, are fre- 
quently used for fertilizing purposes. The nitrogen of 
both animal and vegetable origin must first be decom- 
posed and converted into nitrates before it can be used 
by plants. This takes time, and hence such substances 
are slow-acting fertilizers. The meal, or pomace, 
obtained as a by-product in the extraction of vege- 
table oils, all contain large quantities of nitrogen, 
such as cottonseed meal, castor pomace, germ meal 
obtained from corn, etc. These substances are very 
valuable as feeds for stock. This does not preclude 
their use for fertiUzing, for, in fact, they are almost 
as valuable for fertilizing purposes, after passing 
through the cattle, as before. 

123. Composted manures are the most economical and, 
in general, the most desirable fertilizers. Besides sup- 
plying large amounts of nitrogen, they contain consid- 



88 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 

erable quantities of potash and phosphoric acid. The 
vegetable matter acts very beneficially, improving the 
texture and water-retaining property of the soil. An 
instance of the power of compost to maintain the land 
at a high state of productiveness has already been 
given (^ 115). Compost should be applied in the fall or 
early, winter and plowed or harrowed under. Covered 
barns prevent the loss in value of compost by scattering 
and leaching. Sometimes the compost is removed 
directly to the field. In many cases, where it is stored in 
bins, sufficient soil should be added from time to time 
to absorb the ammonia that is formed. When packed 
down closely to exclude the air, the loss from fermenta- 
tion will be greatly reduced. 

124. Fixation of Free Nitrogen by the tubercle-forming 
bacteria, found on the roots of plants belonging to the 
pea family, is the most important source of nitrogen 
known. By growing these legumes we add to the supply 
of combined nitrogen, and thus make the world richer. 
We do not recover all the nitrogen added to the soil in 
fertilizing. A part of it is lost by leaching, and a part by 
the escape of free nitrogen. All combined nitrogen may 
be used over and over again by plants and animals, but 
eventually it escapes back to the air as free nitrogen 
and, in this form, is available only to the bacteria 
which cause the formation of tubercles on the roots of 
legumes, and to a low class of microscopic plants. (See 
^ 127, Nitrification.) Without these plants the world's 
supply of combined nitrogen would become exhausted. 
In the present state of our knowledge, only the ''tubercle 
bacteria," and one or two other classes of bacteria, 
whose life-habits are little understood, are known to 
have the power "of fixing free nitrogen. 



Improving the Chemical Nature of the Soil 



89 



125. Tubercles on Legumes. Plants belonging to the 
pea or legume family have small tubercles on their roots. 
(Fig. 47, A and B.) On opening the small tubercles found 





Fig. 47. A, root system of pea with tubercles. B, root system of alfalfa with 
tubercles. After Belzung 

on the roots of beans, peas^ alfalfa, blue bonnets, etc., 

we notice in the center a rose-colored area. If a bit 

of this is scraped into a drop of water, it becomes milky 

because of the hundreds of bacteria. 

They are so small that the most powerful 

microscopes are needed to make out their 

form. (Fig. 48.) It is these little plants 

that have the power to take the free 

nitrogen of the atmosphere and convert 

it into such form that the nodule-bearing 

plants, such as the cow-pea, may use it. 

Without these bacteria the legumes do not 

fix free nitrogen. It is this nitrogen-fixing 

power that makes these plants so valu- ^fubei-cie of^e^ 

, , . gume showing 

able to us. the bacteria. 




90 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 

126. How Legumes Enrich the Soil. By growing 
legumes (cow-peas, alfalfa, peanuts, etc.) the farmer is 
able to harvest a crop valuable as food for man, or feed 
for stock. These crops are especially valuable because 
of the large amount of nitrogenous or muscle-building 
substances which they contain. At the same time, 
strange as it may seem, they leave a larger quantity 
of nitrogen in the soil than was there before the crop 
was sown. The latter becomes available to other plants 
by the decay of the roots. This promotes the yield 
of the succeeding crop, as the following experiment 
shows: The plan of the experiment included two 
plots, ''A" and '^B." On ''A" clover was grown the 
first year and barley the second. On '^B" barley was 
grown both years. The increase in yield of barley on 
plot ''A" over ''B" is the measure of the manurial value 
of the roots of the clover left in the soil by the first year's 
crop. 



Plot 


Yield in 




Yield in 


first year 




second year 


A. Clover . . . 


...Clover 


Barley 


69.4 bus. 


B. Barley. . . 


. . . 37.3 bus. 


Barley 


39.1 bus. 



Increase in yield due to clover roots. .30.3 bus. per acre. 

The fixation of free nitrogen by the bacteria in the 
root nodules of the pea family has been thoroughly 
studied and is well established. 

127. Nitrification is the formation of nitrates or salts 
containing nitrogen. Whenever vegetable or animal 
remains, like guano, cottonseed meal, composts and 
animal bodies, decay in the soil, the complex nitrogen 
compounds are broken up, and nitrates are formed. 
Nitrogen, which is so essential to plant life, is absorbed 
from the soil as nitrates. The nitrogen in the cottonseed 



Improving the Chemical Nature of the Soil 91 

meal, for instance, must be converted into a soluble 
salt before it can be absorbed. This change is complex 
and is brought about by certain kinds of bacteria in 
the soil. 

128. How to Promote Nitrification. Since the amount 
of nitrate nitrogen in the soil affects the yield of crops, 
particularly grain and forage crops, the question is often 
asked, ''Can the farmer promote the growth of the nitri- 
fying bacteria in his soils?" The answer is ''yes." These 
bacteria are most active when the soil is loose, so that 
air can enter. These bacteria use large amounts of oxy- 
gen in making the nitrates, hence deep cultivation is 
the first essential to promote their activity. They do not 
grow in strongly acid soils. (See further in any ency- 
clopedia, under "Saltpeter.") Nitrification is most active 
during the summer when the temperature is high. It 
ceases when the temperature of the soil falls below 
50° Fahr. 

129. De-nitrification is the destruction of nitrates. 
This is due to another class of bacteria, but, fortunately, 
the soil conditions that favor nitrification tend to retard 
de-nitrification. De-nitrification takes place in a serious 
degree, sometimes, when manure is not properly cared 
for; as when it becomes too dry, or when so wet that air 
is excluded. The same is true for the soils of the fields. 

130. How the Soil Loses Nitrogen. The complex 
nitrogen compounds are usually converted into nitrates 
and absorbed by growing plants. If not absorbed, they 
may be destroyed by the de-nitrifying bacteria, or leached 
from the soil by percolating waters. They are quite 
soluble and, therefore, easily washed from the soil, par- 
ticularly so from fallow soils through the winter months. 
The practice of leaving our cotton and corn fields fallow 



92 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 

and unplowed through the winter has much to do with 
the ''wearing out'' of the soils. A better plan would be 
to have the ground covered by some winter annual 
plant, such as oats, which could be grazed. 

131. Green Manuring. Sometimes crops are grown 
with no intention of saving the above-ground portion 
for hay, but it is plowed under to increase the content 
of humus in the soil. While, in general, it would be 
much better to save the hay and, after feeding to stock, 
return the compost to the soil, there may be situations 
where it is desirable to turn the entire crop directly 
into the soil. When a crop is plowed under to enrich the 
soil, sufficient time should be allowed for complete decay 
before sowing another crop. The decaying plant remains 
often causes the soil to become quite acid for months 
afterward. 

132. Relation of Texture to Fertilizing. The profit or 
loss resulting from the application of fertilizers depends 
much on the texture of the soil. Irrigation water and 
fertilizers are but poor and expensive substitutes for 
timely efforts to improve the texture of the soil. The 
best results from irrigation, or the application of ferti- 
lizers, may be expected only when the soil is in the most 
favorable tilth. "Tillage is manure." 

133. Experiments on Soil Testing. In ^| 117, mention 
was made of the desirability of testing the value of 
various fertilizing substances for any particular soil 
formation. Select a level piece of soil whose productive- 
ness is to be tested under varying treatments, and lay 
out into beds, one (or two, or more, if desired) yard 
square. The location selected should be such as to give 
uniform conditions in all the beds, and all should be pre- 
pared alike. Fall-sown oats, wheat, or barley, are suitable 



Improving the Chemical Nature of the Soil 93 

crops for tests in school gardens. From the usual amount 
of the various fertilizers applied per acre, we may cal- 
culate the amounts necessary for the beds. If they are 
just one yard square, divide the usual quantities by the 
number of square yards per acre (4,840), and the quo- 
tient will indicate the amount required for the beds. 
It is recommended that a space of two feet be left be- 
tween the beds to guard against the possibility of the 
fertilizer in one bed affecting results in adjacent ones. 
The location should be one not subject to washing or 
flooding. 

133a. Scheme for Field Tests of Different Fertilizers. Beds exactly 
one yard square. Walks two feet wide. 

1. Land for beds plowed 2. Harrowed, or raked 

3. Beds laid out and staked. . . 4. Fertilizers applied 

5. Beds planted 6. Quantity of seed to each bed. . 

7. Depth planted 8. Plants appeared above ground 



Fertilizers 



At the rate per 
acre in pounds 



Nothing (check) 

Compost 

Wood ashes 

Fresh lime 

Common salt 

Sodium nitrate 

Acid phosphate 

Nothing (check) 

Potash (Kainit) 

Combination — 

Soluble phosphate. 

Sodium nitrate. . . . 

Nothing (check) 

Combination — 

Phosphate 

Potassium nitrate 
Nothing (check) 



5-10 
1,000-3,000 
5,000-20,000 



100-300 
200-400 

100-300' 

200-400 
200-300 



Quantity 


of lbs. ap- 


plied to one 


square yard 


2 ibs. 


i lb. 


3 lbs. 


1 oz. 


1 oz. 


2 oz. 


1 oz." 


1 oz. 


1 oz. 



Lbs. of 
crop har- 
vested 



CHAPTER XIV 



PRODUCTIVENESS OF SOILS 



134. Fertility and Productiveness Compared. A soil 
may be fertile, that is, rich in food elements, but not pro- 
ductive because of the presence of some harmful sub- 
stance in the soil. A familiar example is the '^clover 
sickness" of northern soils. A soil naturally suited to 

clover will grow 
several splendid crops, 
and then become 
''sick of clover," as 
the}^ say, because 
clover will not thrive 
any longer. The soil 
is still rich in all ele- 
ments of fertility, but 
not productive for 
clover because of 
some poisonous sub- 
stance thought to 
be produced by the 
decay of the clover 
roots. If planted to 
other crops for a few 
seasons it will recover 
its former productive- 
ness. The injurious 
results of even a 
single crop of sorghum 




Fig. 49. Poisonous substances in the soil, 
formed by decaying vegetable matter, some- 
times keeps a fertile soil from being pro- 
ductive. (Wheat seedlings grown in: (1) 
Pure distilled water ; (2) soil extract ; (3) 
same soil extract from which the poisonous 
substances have been removed by absorp- 
tion with carbon black.) Bureau of Soils, 
United States Department of Agriculture. 

(94) 



Productiveness of Soils 95 

on some soils is much greater than could result from 
the loss of fertiUzing substance removed by the crop. 
The effect is probably due to the formation of some 
harmful substance by the decay of the roots. These 
injurious substances are dissolved in the soil moisture. 
Deep plowing and the application of composts tend to 
overcome the bad effects of the poisonous substances. 

135. Soil Conditions That Affect Production. The in- 
telligent farmer watches his crop closely from day to 
day, and studies all the conditions that affect the vigor 
or fruitfulness of his crop, of which there are many. 
The general health of the plant may be affected as 
much by conditions above the ground as by conditions 
below the ground. If the plants are not growing properly, 
close observation will often lead one to discover the 
unfavorable condition, and a remedy for it. 

136. Excessive Droughty Conditions are noticed by 
wilting, twisting, or drooping conditions of the leaves. 
The plants endure but do not make profitable growth 
when this condition exists, even for a part of the day. 
Where irrigation is not possible, prevention is the only 
remedy. (See H 95, 105.) 

137. Wet Soil Conditions often cause the leaves and 
stems to grow slowly and assume a yellowish cast, with 
splashes of purple. This condition is not the result of 
too much water in the plant, but of some injurious 
effect of water-logged soils on the roots. Many plants 
can be grown to full maturity with their roots in water, 
but not in a water-logged soil. Soils that frequently 
retain injurious amounts of water should be drained. 
(See H 107.) 

138. Soils Deficient in Essential Elements. Some soils 
do not have enough of some one or more of the essential 



96 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 

elements to suit the requirements of the crop. It is im- 
portant in this particular to remember that forage crops 
need large amounts of nitrogen, and grain crops much 
phosphorus. The fruit crops require much potash. A 
soil may be even deficient in any one or several of the 
essential elements. The best and safest guide to learn 
the special fertilizing needs of a soil is to try by test. 
(See t 133a.) 

139. Chemical Elements May Not Be in Balance. A 
soil may contain so much nitrogen that the crop, say 



t^ ^^^^ 




I ^^s^^^^^mm^^^m^. ,.. ^ 




Fig. 50. Showing the effect of an exco-^'- of hnic tnl mai^iiesia on plant growth. 
Excess of Hme in pots on left; excess of magnesia in pots on right. Nearly 
equal amounts of each in center pots. From Bull, United States Department 
of Agriculture. 

grain or fruit, goes all to wood and leaf and does not 
produce a harvest. In such cases, a potash or a phos- 
phate fertilizer would be needed to balance the ration 
of mineral food. Sometimes some element, even an 
essential element, may be in excess. Plants require 
magnesium and calcium (^ 43), but an excess of either 
may be the cause of a poor result. Fig. 50 shows the re- 
sult of adding lime to balance an excess of magnesia in 
the soil, and shows the effect of balanced and unbalanced 
amounts of calcium and magnesium on plant growth. 
The good effects that sometimes result from the appli- 



Productiveness of Soils 97 

cation of lime may be due to the establishment of bal- 
ance between the calcium and magnesium as just men- 
tioned; to the effect on insoluble potassium or phos- 
phorus compounds (^ 90); to a mechanical effect on the 
texture of the soil (^ 73); to the effect of lime in taking 
up an excess of acid in soils (^ 141); or in neutralizing 
some forms of alkali. 

140. The Mechanical Condition of the soil may be the 
cause of unsatisfactory crops. Some crops, like wheat, do 
best with a settled sub-surface soil, while beets, potatoes 
and many other crops do best with a very loose soil. 

141. Sour, or Acid, Soils are very unfavorable to some 
crops. Many soils are slightly acid, as will be found when 
tested with litmus paper. They differ greatly in the 
degree of sourness. Very acid soils are not favorable 
for alfalfa, cotton, etc.; but, for corn and small grains, no 
rule has yet been suggested. Soils that contain injurious 
amounts of acid are found in swamps or in sandy uplands. 

141a. To Test Soils for Acid, use a small slip of litmus paper, 
secured from the druggist. Place the paper against the moist soil, 
and the color after some minutes will change. If blue, the soil is 
alkaline; if red, it is acid. 

141^. Alkali Salts in a soil may be the cause of un- 
productiveness. There are several kinds of very soluble 
salts that accumulate in the surface soils, most fre- 
quently in regions of low rainfall. Often the dwarfing 
effect of alkali salts is confined to a low place, a wet- 
weather seep, or other place where a quantity of soil- 
water is evaporated. These salts are formed in all soils, 
but where the rainfall is abundant they are washed out 
of the soil by percolating water. If the rain is all evapo- 
rated from the surface, it will cause an accumulation of 
these salts to such an extent that injury to the plant 
results. Lime is often beneficial on such soils. 



CHAPTER XV 
ROTATION OF CROPS 

142. Rotation. The amount of mineral food which a 
crop will take from the soil varies with the kind of crop, 
depending on how much of the crop is removed by the 
yearly harvest, the richness of the land, and many 
seasonal features which are too complex to be discussed 
here. By referring to the table in the appendix it will 
be seen that the amount of nitrogen removed by the 
grain crops is less than the amount removed by crops 
grown for their roots. It will be noticed, also, that grain 
crops remove or require large amounts of phosphorus; 
root crops, potash; and hay crops, much nitrogen ; an 
exception being made for legumes Uke alfalfa, clover, or 
cow peas when grown as hay crops (H 117). Some 
legume crop should be included in any system of rota- 
tion. 

143. Order of Succession in Rotation. It is desirable 
to arrange the rotation so that the same land does not 
have the same crop twice in succession. In arranging the 
crop it is important to consider the order in which the 
crops should follow each other. Plants with shallow roots 
should follow plants with deep-feeding roots; non-cul- 
tivated crops, hke grain, should follow cultivated crops, 
because they leave the land in better tilth. As regards 
the predominating mineral foods, it is better to let those 
crops requiring large amounts of nitrogen follow potash- 
loving crops, or, still better, legumes, because they 
will leave additional amounts of nitrogen in the soil which 

(98) 



Rotation of Crops 99 

will be very beneficial to the grain, but not so necessary 
to the others. In some soils cover crops or heavy appli- 
cations of fresh manure tend to cause too rank a growth 
of straw in the small grains. In such cases it is advisable 
to allow a crop of corn to come before the small grains. 

144. Cover Crops; Catch Crops. Except in arid 
regions, it is best to keep the land constantly occupied by 
some crop. They not only keep the land continually earn- 
ing something, but it is best for the land. A field that is 
bare or fallow loses more by leaching than when occu- 
pied by plants. It is often possible to grow a quick- 
maturing crop after the principal crops have been harves- 
ted, for example, June corn after potatoes or small 
grain; cowpeas after corn. 

145. Marketable, or Usable, Crops. In planning a 
rotation or selecting a cover crop, it is necessary to con- 
sider what may be successfully sold, or used to advan- 
tage. This will depend on the markets and the farmer's 
facilities for keeping and feeding certain kinds of crops. 

146. Other Advantages of Rotation. Besides pre- 
serving the soil nutrients, providing for their better dis- 
tribution, facilitating fertilizing, rotation (which is 
closely related to diversification) affords other ad- 
vantages: 

(a) Tends to free the land from noxious weeds, as where 
oat stubble is planted to June corn, the late cultivation 
of the corn prevents the seeding of the weeds, such as 
cockle burs or Johnson grass. 

(b) Exterminates insect and fungous diseases. Insect 
and fungous pests usually attack only particular kinds of 
crops. If the same crop is grown on the same land year 
after year, the larvae of insects and spores of the fungi 
lodging in the ground during the fallow season will 



100 Elementarj/ Principles of Agriculture 

find their food ready when the season is ready for them 
to multiply. (See ^ 217 and ^ 228.) 

147. Distributes the Labor. Rotation and diversifi- 
cation make it possible for the work to be more evenly 
distributed through the year. Not all the crops will need 
to be planted, cultivated or harvested at the same time. 
The farmer will thus be able to keep busy, and not have 
to pay out so much for help during rush seasons that 
^come with a one-crop system of farming. 



CHAPTER XVI 

« 
RELATIONS OF PLANTS ABOVE THE GROUND 

148. We have now found out some of the things 
about the relation of the plant to the soil. Soil culture^ 
we found to be making a home for the roots. What can 
we do to make the conditions above the ground more 
favorable to the growth of the crops? 

149. Provide for Leaf Development. All the carbon 
in plants, which is fully half their substance, is absorbed 
from the air by the green leaves, and, through the agency 
of sunhght, made into plant substance. The leaf is a 
part, or organ, where the raw materials are brought 
together and made into the foods that nourish the plant. 
It is plain, then, that in husbanding plants provision 
should be made for normal leaf development. Leaves 
will not grow unless plenty of light is present. This is 
shown when plants are grown in darkness. We have 
often noticed how the leaves arrange themselves *so that 
they get the greatest benefit from the rays of hght. 
Plants growing beside a wall or in a window turn their 
leaf surfaces toward the light. Vigorous leaf develop- 
ment is possible only when plants are far enough apart 
to not unduly shade each other. Too many plants must 
not be allowed to grow on the same ground, whether 
they be w^eeds or all of the crop planted. When the 
plants are too close together, the leaves and side branches 
do not grow, and the stem spindles up in an effort to 
reach the best light. The individual plants are thus 
weakened, and are more subject to the attack of insects 

(101) 



102 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 

and fungi. Weak, poorly nourished plants are not fruit- 
ful. Healthy plants have large leaves. Large leaves 
indicate vigor. The rank-growing weeds have large 
leaves. Increasing the amount of leaf surface is increas- 
ing the capacity of the plant to manufacture plant 
substance. 

150. Relation of Leaf Surface to Soil Moisture. The 
total leaf surface on a plant may be several times the 
total ground surface shaded by the plant. If evapora- 
tion is increased by the winds or high temperatures, it 
may happen that the supply of soil moisture may become 
exhausted and the plant suffer. Soils covered with plants 
lose their moisture faster than if they are bare or fallow. 
In regions of slight rainfall, therefore, it often becomes 
desirable to reduce the number of plants to prevent too 
great a draft on the stores of soil moisture. This is an 
additional reason for leaving space between the indi- 
vidual plants in a crop. (See ^ 102.) 

151. How Far Apart Should Plants Be Grown? Where 
the value of the crop depends on the perfect develop- 
ment of the individual plant, or some special part, such 
as the leaves, flowers, fruits, stems, or roots, sufficient 
space should be allowed that adjacent plants will not 
interfere with each other. However, the value of the 
crop often depends more on the total weight of the 
harvest than on the quality of the individual plants. 
In such cases, the loss from a limited amount of shade 
will be more than made up by the increased number 
of plants, as in the case of the grain crops. Again, the 
fertility of the land also affects the size of the plants, 
and, of course, the space which each should be allowed. 
Often the use for which the crop is intended must be 
considered, as, for instance, in the case of sorghum grown 



Relations of Plants Above the Ground 103 

for syrup or for forage; corn grown for ensilage or for 
grain. 

152. The Vigor of Leaves and Stem Growth. The size 
of leaves is influenced largely by the amount of water 
available to the plants during the period of their for- 
mation. From this, it follows that plants grown for their 
leaveS; like cabbage, lettuce, hay crops, etc., do best 
when plenty of moisture is in the ground. Light is neces- 
sary for the formation of leaves, as we have seen. Where 
branches are shaded, the lower leaves are small and 
weak, and often fall off before the season ends. As the 
buds, from which the branches, leaves and flowers of the 
succeeding season grow, are formed in the axils of the 
leaves and take their vigor from them, it is important 
that fruit trees be pruned out so that hght may reach 
to all parts. (See Chapter XVIII.) 

153. The Temperature of the Air is subject to great 
and often sudden variations, whereas the soil, as we have 
seen, changes its temperature very slowly. The above- 
ground portion is more often injured by extreme cold 
or excessive heat than the part below the ground. 
The first effect of lowering the temperature is to retard 
the growth of the plant. Cold does not permanently 
affect all plants alike. Some plants are killed by moder- 
ately low temperature, while others are uninjured even 
by long exposure to severe freezing. The ill effects of 
freezing are more severe on plants when full of sap. 
Peach trees may endure a number of severe freezes 
through the winter, but if a severe cold spell comes 
late in the spring, after the buds have swollen, the 
injury is often considerable. 

Sometimes the bad effects are due to the sudden 
thawing, more than to the cold itself. The winter-kiUing 



104 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 

of the cambium layer is often confined to the east side 
of a tree where the early sun rays cause a sudden warm- 
ing. DeHcate plants, fruits, etc., may often be saved 
by protecting from too rapid thawing. By shielding 
from the sun's rays, bathing in cold water, etc.* 

154. Buds and Nodes. If we examine the branches of 
almost any shrub or herb, we shall find that they are 
divided into segments by the buds at the nodes. We have 
already found a reason for calling the former nodes, and 
the spaces between, internodes. The buds are formed 
just above, or, as the botanist says, in the axil of the leaf, 
which readily explains the observation that the vigor 
of the buds is determined by the size of the leaves which 
nourish them. The bud at the end of the shoot, called 
the "terminal bud," is usually the most vigorous; 
but, as a rule, the vigor and the size of the buds de- 
crease as we pass down to the beginning of the season's 
growth. This is often due to the subsequent shading of 
the lower leaves, — often to the extent that they turn 
yellow and fall off. 

155. Structure and Classification of Buds. If we exam- 
ine some large buds, such as the buckeye, sycamore, or 
fig, just as they unfold their leaves in the spring, it 
will be very plainly seen that the bud scales are only 
transformed leaves, hence they are called scale-leaves 
to distinguish them from normal leaves. These scale- 
leaves cover up an embryo branch — a branch having 
miniature leaves, nodes and internodes. Nature formed 
these buds, or embryo branches, early in the preceding 
season. Note also that more buds were formed than are 
likely to grow into branches. (Fig. 52.) 

*For excellent full discussion of the effects of temperature on plants, and 
the proper treatment to lighten the bad effects, reference should be made to 
Goff, The Principles of Plant Culture; Bailey, The Principles of Fruit Culture. 



Relations of Plants Above the Ground 



105 



156. Leaf Buds and Flower Buds. If we notice the 
buds on peach or plum branches from January until 
spring, we shall see that all the buds are not the same size 
or shape. Some are pointed and slender, and will form a 
cluster of leaves when they burst forth in the springs 
and are hence called leaf buds. Others are broad and 
rounded: these buds are flower buds. They are some- 




Fig. 51. Leaf buds and flower buds of plum. 1. Shoot bearing leaf^buds only. 
2. A bud of same enlarged. 3 and 5. Branches having leaf-buds and 
flower-buds. 4, 6 and 7. Buds of same enlarged. Flower-buds at /; leaf- 
buds at I. 

times called fruit buds, but, of course, the flower must 
always precede the formation of the fruit, so it is best 
to call them flower buds. Just below each bud is a leaf 
scar. Sometimes we will find the leaf scars, though the 
buds are apparently not there. They are there, however, 
but too small to be seen. They do not grow unless the end 
of the branch is removed. Such buds as do not grow 
except when stimulated are called latent buds. (Fig. 51.) 



106 



Elementary Principles of Agriculture 



157. How to Distinguish Flower Buds. Flower buds 
are formed the same season that the leaf buds are, 
though it is not always easy to distinguish the two kinds 
till some time after the fall of the leaves. The position of 
the bud is often an indication of its kind. We notice, 
in the plum twigs illustrated in Fig. 51, that the flower 
buds are on the side of the leaf buds. We also noticed 
that the flower buds were found 

only on the wood of last season's 
growth. The ''bearing wood" of the 
peach, plum, and other similar stone 
fruits, is formed in the season before 
the flowers appear. Good crops of 
fruit cannot be had from trees of 
this class unless sufficient bearing 
wood is made the preceding season. 
In the case of the apple, pear, 
quince, etc., the flower buds are 
formed less regularly. They occur 
on the end of small side branches 
that are from two to five years 
old. The shape and place of appear- ^®"- 
ance of the flower buds vary very much in the differ- 
ent classes of fruits. It is important that one should 
know how to recognize them and to know the time of 
their formation as well. It often gives valuable informa- 
tion as to how and when to cultivate and prune. For 
illustration, take the grape. The flower clusters are 
found on the current spring shoots, hence we prune 
heavily to promote the formation of new wood. 

158. Formation of Flower Buds. In plants that are 
esteemed for their flowers or fruits, it is desirable to 
know all the conditions that promote the formation of 




Fig. 52. Diagram of a 
section through a bud. 
V, the apex; 1, 2, 3, 4, 
successively older leaf 
rudiments; A, B, C, suc- 
cessively older branch 
rudiments; D, E, vascu- 
lar bundles. After Han- 



Relations of Plants Above the Ground 107 

flower buds. Some sorts are naturally more inclined to 
form flowers than others, still we can promote the 
fruitfulness of the plants by giving them proper treat- 
ment. Every one has noticed that the trees bloom more 
profusely some seasons than others. This has led many 
persons to study the conditions that induce the forma- 
tion of flower buds. 

159. Conditions That Promote the Formation of Flower 
Buds. Flower buds are formed in the greatest abundance 
when the reserve food is considerably in excess of the 
current needs of the plant. If a plant is growing too 
rapidly, using up all the food as fast as the leaves make 
it, flowers are not formed in abundance. They may be 
stimulated to form flower buds by checking the growth, 
either by reducing the water supply, by removing the 
tips (terminal buds) of the shoots, or by restricting the 
growth of the roots. When plants are young, or just at 
the opening of spring, in the case of fruit trees, they 
grow very rapidly. Flower buds already formed will open, 
but new ones are not formed till the warm, dry winds 
have checked the rapid growth of the shoots. This check- 
ing of the growth allows the formation of reserve food 
in excess of what the plant is using for growth. To en- 
courage the formation of the flower buds, then, we should 
promote the accumulation of reserve food. 

160. How to Promote the Accumulation of Reserve 
Food. Experience has shown that the three following 
rules are safe guides: 

(a) Provide favorable conditions for food formation 
in the leaves. Light and a free circulation of air are essen- 
tial. These may be secured by giving the plants plenty 
of distance, or by pruning out useless branches. The 
normal healthy conditions of the fohage should be pre- 



108 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 

served. Plants suffering from the attacks of insects 
or fungi are not fruitful because they are imperfectly 
nourished. 

(b) Provide the roots with the proper amounts of 
phosphoric acid, potash, and nitrogen. An excess of nitro- 
gen tends to favor growth of leaves and shoots at the 
expense of flowers. Phosphorus and potash favor the 
formation of flowers and the full development of the 
fruit and seeds. 

(c) Check any unusual or unnecessary growth of the 
sterns by withholding excessive supplies of water. This 
check to the growth naturally results when the warm 
weather of the summer sets in. Where the plants are 
grown under glass it is often possible to regulate the time 
of flowering by controlhng the water supply. 

161. Fruiting in Perennial Plants is sometimes so 
excessive that they are greatly damaged. Fruit trees 
"overbear" to such an extent that they exhaust all the 
reserve food and the flower buds do not develop for the 
succeeding crop. This gives rise to the habit of producing 
a crop every other year, noticed in apples and peaches. 

162. Sterile Plants, or other plants that are kept from 
fruiting, tend to become perennial. If the formation of 
fruits is prevented or removed while young they con- 
tinue to grow and form new flowers. In this way, sweet 
peas, nasturtiums, and other plants grown for their 
flowers, have their blooming period prolonged. Garden 
plants of which the fruit is gathered immature, as beans, 
cucumbers and okra, grow much longer than they would 
if the first fruits formed were allowed to mature and 
exhaust the plant. Clover, grown so extensively in the 
North and in some southern states, is a biennial; though, 
if prevented from fruiting, it becomes a perennial. 



CHAPTER XVII 
THE OFFICE OF FLOWERS 

163. We have already mentioned some of the con- 
ditions that promote the free formation of flowers. We 
might call it the conditions necessary for fruitfulness, 
for the flower is only a step in the formation of the fruit 
and seeds. Some plants are cultivated only for their 
leaves, stems or roots— as cabbages, lumber trees, or pota- 
toes. Most plants, however, owe their value to the crop 
of seed or fruit which they bear. In the latter class, in- 
clucUng the fruits and grains, it is not only necessary that 
the flowers be formed, but that they should form seed 
abundantly. They must "set seed," as the farmer says. 
To understand this process, we must know more about 
the structure and the use of the different parts of a 
flower. 

164. Structure of Flowers. Flowers are very varied in 
their form, size, and in the arrangement of their parts. 
If we should closely examine a flower of a peach or a 
geranium, to take familiar examples, we will find that it 
has several parts, each of which contributes some service 
to the success of the plant's effort to form seed. We 
have already learned that a seed is usually an embryo 
plant, with a store of reserve food, both inclosed in a 
protecting case called the seed coat. 

165. The Names of the Parts. We must learn the parts 
of a flower and their names. We first notice the brightly 
colored petals. They attract our attention and that of 
the bee also. The bee long ago learned to recognize 

(109) 



110 



Elementary Principles of Agriculture 



these brightly colored parts as sign-boards directing 
it to the nectar below. The pleasant scent or odor 
serves the same purpose. 

166. There are five petals in the peach-blossom, all 
separate, but in the morning-glory they are united. 
Whether united or separate, taken together they are 
termed corolla. (Fig. 53.) Just below the corolla there are 
usually five small green leaves which are named sepals, 
and, when taken together, the calyx. The corolla and 




Peach-blossom cut open, to show the parts of Calyx and corolla of Morn- 

the flower. . ing-Glory. 

Fig. 53. Peach-blossom and morning-glory. 

calyx were called the floral envelope by the older botan- 
ists. Inside of the corolla are a number of small yellow- 
ish masses on slender stalks. These yellowish bodies are 
called pollen cases, or anthers. When ripe, they produce 
the fine yellow dust, or pollen. In the center of the whorl 
of stamens is the pistil. There are three parts in the 
pistil. At the top it usually has a slightly knob-like 
portion called the stigma, covered with a thick, gummy 
Hquid. The stigma is sticky, to catch and germinate the 
pollen brought from its own or other flowers. Below 
the stigma is a slender portion, the style, and then the 
swollen base, the ovary. The ovary is the part that 



The Office of Flowers 



111 




At 3 p. m. 



At 8 a. m. the next morn- 
ing. 



Fig. 54. The opening of a flower of Kieffer pear, showing the unfolding \oi the 
parts in blooming. The flowers of pears and apples have five styles'fand 
stigmas. All natural size. From American Gardening. 

grows after the other parts of the flowers have fallen. 
It becomes the cherry with its seed, the pea pod, the 
corn grain, the pecan with hull, etc. 

167. Use of the Parts of the Flower. Now that we have 
examined a flower and learned to recognize the parts, we 
want to know what these parts do. We have already 
learned that the bright color of the corolla serves to guide 
the bee or butterfly, or other nectar-eating insect, to the 




Fig. 55. Flowers of scarlet sage, showing how pollination takes place. 
A, Position of anther when the bee sips nectar; B, stigma {st) in 
position to be pollinated. 



112 



Elementary Principles of Agriculture 



drop of food at the base of the ovary. When the bee 
enters the flower to gather bee-bread (pollen) and the 
honey, or nectar, at base of pistil, some of the pollen is 
lodged on its head and legs and body. When it enters 
the next flower, some of this pollen is caught by the 

stigma. (Fig. 55.) Many 
kinds of flowers are solely 
dependent on the going and 
coming of insects to bring 
about pollination and, there- 
fore, the formation of fruit 
and seed. We used to think 
that flow^ers had their gor- 
geous colors to please man's 
fancy. We now know that it 
is to attract the lowly in- 
sects. Usually, night-bloom- 
ing flowers are white and 
give off their odors more 
strongly at night (study the 
tuberoses, rain lilies, night- 
blooming cereus, moon-flow- 
ers, etc.), in order to attract 
the night-flying moths. Blue 
and red flowers are day 
bloomers. 

168. Growth of the Pollen 
Grains. The pollen grain is 
a very small body, consisting of one or two cells. 
When it is deposited on the moist stigma, it begins to 
grow a slender tube (pollen-tube) down into the ovary. 
169. Fertilization. The pollen-tube produces a small 
cell that contains a nucleus that passes into and unites 




Fig. 56. Diagrammatic section of 
ovary and ovule at time of fertili- 
zation, m, micropyle; k, egg cell; 
The pollen tube is shown down 
through the style, between the 
walls of the ovary and ovule, to 
the egg cell. A:, of the embryo sac. 



k'^^ 




A Fruit for Every Farm. 




The result of poUenixmg the Herbert grape with different varieties. 



The Office of Flowers 



113 



with the female cells in the ovule. (Fig. 56.) This pro- 
cess is called fertilization or fecundation. When fertili- 
zation takes place, the fruit is ''set" and the ovary- 
begins to grow. The corolla, stamens, etc., wither and 
fall away. If fertiUzation does not take place, the entire 
flower withers and dies in most cases, — the exceptions 
being the fleshy seedless fruits, as seedless grapes and 
oranges. 

170. The Growth of the Fruit and Seeds. After fertili- 
zation, the ovary and, in many plants, other adjacent 
parts, begin to grow rapidly. The reserve food of the 
stems moves rapidly through the httle twig that sup- 
ported the flower into the fruit. The fruit contains the 
seed. Seed production exhausts the plant. Nearly all 
the reserve food passes into the seed and fruits. Often 
more than half of the substance of a plant is collected 
into the seeds, as in common field corn. 

171. Importance of Pollination. Pollination and fecun- 
dation are necessary for the growth of the fruits and 
seeds, except in some kinds of seedless fruits, like the 
banana. In some varieties of strawberries the pollen 
is not produced in sufficient quantity to cause the fruit 
to set. In such cases it is usual to plant varieties pro- 
ducing pollen freely, in alternate rows. (Fig. 57.) The 
bees, going back and 
forth from one variety 
to the other, carry 
sufficient pollen to 
make the fruit set on 
the fine sorts. Some 
varieties of plums 

and pears, while pro- ^ig. 57. Flowers of the strawberry. A. 
^ ^ ^ a flower having both stamens and pistils; 

ducing p 1 le n , are B, flower of a kind having pistils only 




114 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 

sterile to their own pollen. Many varieties of grapes 
also do not set fruit when poUinated with their own 
pollen. The illustration facing page 113 shows the 




Fig. 58. Injurious effect of self-pollination shown in pile at right. From 
Bulletin United States Department of Agriculture. 

effect of pollen of several varieties of grape on the 
Herbert grape. Some varieties make good pollinizers 
while others do not. If one is planting Herbert grapes, 
other varieties should be planted nearby to furnish 
pollen. In the same way, an orchard of Kieffer pears 
will be more fruitful if trees of other varieties are in 
the orchard. The bees will carry the pollen back and 
forth as they go from flower to flower. Sometimes in 
long-continued rainy weather during the flowering sea- 
son a full crop of fruit is not set, because the bees are 
unable to visit the flowers freely. 

172. Not All Plants Pollinated by Insects. Some plants, 
like wheat, oats, cotton, beans, etc., are ordinarily self- 
pollinated, that is, the pollen in the flower is produced 
so that it naturally falls on the stigma. Many other 
plants, as the pine trees, field corn, willows, etc., are 
solely dependent on the wind to carry the pollen from 
one flower to another. There are many interesting 
adaptations for bringing about pollination, which cannot 
be discussed here. 



The Office of Flowers 



115 



173. Cross-Fertilization is Important in many plants. 
There are many plants that are normally self-fertilized 
and whose progeny do not seem to lack vigor. However, 
most plants give better seed from cross-fertilization, 
that is, having the pollen to come from different plants. 
Seeds originating from normal cross-fertilization are 
usually more vigorous, healthy and productive than 
seeds resulting from self-fertihzation. The Illinois 
experiment station found a difference of about ten 
bushels per acre in 
the yield of corn 
between seed pro- 
duced by cross- 
fertilization (Fig. 
58) and that by 
self-fertilization. 

Continuous 
self -fertilization 
leads to complete 
sterility in plants 
that are normally 
cross-fertilized, as 
corn, etc. Fig. 59. 
Darwin found 
that after eleven 
generations of 
self-fertilization 
the scarlet runner 
failed to set seed, 
while the plants 
produced by as many generations by cross-fertilization 
were much more healthy and fruitful than the original 
stock. 




Fig. 59. Effect of inbreeding. A, Cross-bred; 
B, inbred five years. 



CHAPTER XVIII 



PRUNING AND TRAINING PLANTS 



174. The Pruning and Training of Plants have for their 
object the improving of the relations of the plant to 
the sunUght and air. They are very old arts, that were 
well developed before we understood how the sunUght 
and air were of use to the plant. 

175. The Effect of Pruning. The practice of improv- 
ing the usefulness of plants by removing some part, is 
founded on the principle that 
suppression of growth in one part 
stimulates growth in others. The 
manner and season of pruning 
governs the result. 

176. Pinching. If we should 
pinch out the terminal bud from 
a leafy branch during the rapid- 
growing season of spring, as shown 
in Fig. 59, it would result in a 
temporary check to the lengthen- 
ing of the branch and a more 
rapid swelling and better nourish- 
ing of the buds below. If only 
the tip were removed, probably 
only one of the buds left — the 
uppermost — would form a new 
shoot. This would soon grow out 
and take the place of the one 
removed. This pinching usually 

(116) 




Fig. 60. Pruning by 
pinching 



Pruning and Training Plants 117 

gives a stocky growth to the branch and favors the 
formation of fruit-buds. (Tj 159) 

177. Summer Pruning of Blackberries. If the new 
shoots of blackberries be pruned off, the buds below 
will form several branches. As the fruit of the following 
season will be borne on this growth, we see how summer 
pruning may increase the fruitfulness of blackberries. 

178. Light Pruning in the Dormant Season stimulates 
branching. If a branch, like the one shown in Fig. 71 
on page 123, were pruned at X, two, or possibly three, 
of the next lower buds might grow into fairly vigorous 
leafy branches, with many strong buds. If left unpruned, 
it would probably grow straight out, forming a slender 
shoot with very feeble side branches, too poorly nour- 
ished to form many fruit-buds. Thus we see that prun- 
ing may stimulate branching, thickening of the stems, 
and a freer formation of bearing wood (branches with 
fiower-buds). This kind of pruning is often practiced on 
all kinds of orchard trees and berry plants, and is fre- 
quently referred to as ^'cutting back" or ^'heading-in."' 
This kind of pruning is quite necessary for the first few 
seasons' pruning of newly set orchards. 

179. Why Prune Plants? We see from the illustra- 
tion given that pruning may be used to (1) check growth, 
(2) induce branching, to give correspondingly more leaf 
surface. The latter causes the branches to be better 
nourished and, hence, to grow thicker and form more 
flower-buds. (See T| 159.) Any kind of pruning that 
retards growth tends to increase fruitfulness and a bet- 
ter ripening of the branches. Pruning is sometimes ob- 
jected to, with the idea that nature knows what is best 
for the plant. Persons who advocate no pruning forget 
that orchard plants are grown in an environment that 



118 



Elementary Principles of Agriculture 



leads to an unusual development of the branches, and 
that such unusual growth does not favor the develop- 
men of fruitfulness (T| 159). Practical experience has 
long proven that the proper pruning of orchard trees 
makes them fruitful and profitable. Pruning is not 
merely removing so many branches or brush. The 
pruning should be done at the place that will pro- 
duce the desired result. Herein lies the value of an 
understanding why and how pruning should be done. 

180. Pruning to Stimulate Growth. Sometimes a 
plant or tree will cease to make the normal amount of 
healthy growth. If such condition is not the result of 
improper soil conditions, very severe pruning of the 
branches may bring about a renewal of active growth. 
Very old orchard trees are sometimes improved by a se- 
vere pruning. Pruning of orchard trees or shade trees 
may be overdone, producing such a shock that the plant 
is weakened rather 

than stimulated. 

181. Pruning to 
Hasten or Delay Ma- 
turity. Pruning to 
hasten maturity is sel- 
dom practiced except 
on nursery stock (re- 
moving the leaves), 
or on tobacco plants. 
It is usual to remove 
the seed -pods from 
flowering plants, such 
as sweet peas, etc., in 
order to prolong the 

flowering period. The Fig. 61. An example of thinning. After Goff. 




Pruning and Training Plants 



119 



food substance that 
would be used in ma- 
turing the seed is used 
to build new flower- 
buds. 

182. Pruning to Pro- 
tect Plants from dis- 
ease and mechanical 
injury is often neces- 
sary. Dead branches 
may fall and do much 
injury to the other 
limbs unless removed; 
or, they may become 
diseased by the fungi 
of decay and transmit 
the disease to the 
heart-wood of the 
trunk, thus mak- 
ing the plant 
weaker. Fig. 62. 
Dead or diseased 
branches, such 
as pear blight, 
should be cut off 
below the dis- 
eased part, and 
burned to prevent 
the spread of the 
disease. 




^'-*% 




.., ^ 




183. Thinning 
Fruit is a form of 
pruning. It often 



Fig. 62. Effect of improper pruning. The larger 
stump became diseased and the heart -wood 
in turn. The fungus mycelium caused the 
heart-wood to decay, as shown in the cross- 
section. The fruiting fungus is shown at A. 
From photograph by Prof. Geo. F. Atkinson. 



120 



Elementary Principles of Agriculture 



happens that a fruit tree will set more fruit than it 
should mature. Nature causes many of these young 
fruits to fall off, but not always sufficiently. Where 
too much fruit is left on the branches, the trees ''over- 
bear," with the result that they do not prove fruitful in 
the season following. All the reserve food is used up in 
maturing the crop and, therefore, flower-buds are not 
formed. (See H 159.) Another good reason for thinning 
is found in better quality of the fruit. A dozen good 
peaches will sell for more than a gallon of ''pie peaches." 
184. Root-pruning. In healthy plants there is a 
balance between root-surface and leaf-surface. If a 
plant is growing too vigorously, it may be checked by 
running a spade into the ground to sever some of the 
roots. 




Fig 63. Tree properly pruned 
before setting out 




Figo 64. A badly shaped top, duei to 
not cutting back when set out. 



Pruning and Training Plants 



121 





Fig. 65. A, cutting too far above the bud; B, cut- 
ting too close; C, the cut as it should be; Z), 
removal of a branch, the cross-line indicating 
the proper place for the cut. 



185. Pruning Transplanted Plants. In transplanting 
plants many of the roots are destroyed, thus destroying 
a natural balance. Transplanted plants, especially 
woody ones, should 
have all injured 
and extra-long 
roots removed and 
the top cut back 
correspondingly. 
(Figs. 63 and 64.) 

186. How to 
Make the Cuts in 
Pruning. When a 
branch is removed, 
we expose a part of 
the cambium and woody portions. Unless this is quickly 
healed over, the wound may become diseased, and the 
entire plant, in turn, before the callus grows over the cut 
surface. It is important, therefore, that, in pruning, noth- 
ing but sharp instruments be used, so that the cuts will 
be smooth. Not only should suitable tools be used, but 
care should be exercised to make the cuts so that the 
least amount of callus will be needed to close the wound. 
Callus cells are nourished by the reserve food. This 
suggests that the line of cut should be close to the sup- 
plies of reserve food. If a small branch is to be cut off, 
make the cut close to a bud, as shown in Fig. 65 C. The 
bud will grow out and the cut will heal over. If cut too 
far above the bud, A, a dead stub will remain that cannot 
be healed over. If cut too close to the bud, B, the bud 
will die, and we have a stub the full length of the inter- 
node. Side branches should be pruned close up to the 
main stem, D. 



122 



Elementary Principles of Agriculture 



Roots of trans- 
planted plants 
should be se- 
verely pruned. It 
is not the length 
of the roots left 
that favor the 
plant, but the 
quickness with 
which new 
branches with 
root -hairs are 
formed. Severe 
pruning pro- 
motes vigorous 
branching in 

many plants, notably the strawberry, celery, etc. 

187. In Removing Large Limbs, extra care should be 

taken to get the cuts at the proper place and angle. 





^^"1 


A .#w^- ^ 





Fig. 66. 



Showing proper position and angle of cut 
to use in removing large limbs. 




Fig. 67. Fig. 68. Fig. 69. 

Healing of properly made cuts. Photographs by Prof. F. A. Waugh. 



Pruning and Training Plants 



123 



Figs. 66, 67 and 68 are good examples. We have already 
noticed the bad results from improper cuts, as shown in 
Fig. 62. (See ^ 59.) 

188. Pruning Orchard 
Trees. Before we can intel- 
ligently prune even young 
orchard trees, it is neces- 
sary to decide on the ar- 
rangement of the branches 
desired in the matured tree. 
Whatever the number 
and arrangement of the 
branches, they should be 
low enough to allow the 
fruit to be gathered easil}', 
and high enough not to 
interfere with the easy care 
and cultivation of the 
ground. Some prefer to 
have the outline of the 
pear trees pyramidal, with 
a central supporting trunk, 
such is shown in Fig. 70. 
For most orchard trees, 
possibly for pears also, it is 
preferable to have a number 




Fig. 70. Pyramidal form of top. 



of strong branches starting out from two to four feet 
from the ground. That portion from which the leading 
branches start is called the head. This gives an open 
center to the tree and allows more light to the smaller 
interior branches, and keeps even the top of the tree 
within reach. Fig. 71 shows the framework of an open- 
headed tree. Fig. 72 shows the starting of such a head. 



124 



Elementary Principles of Agriculture 



and Fig. 73 further thickened and made stocky by 
''heading in." The branches should not start out from 
the same place, as illustrated in Fig. 74. Such branches 
often split out when strong winds prevail. 




Fig. 



Open -headed tree; vase form of top. 



189. Pruning and Training Grape-vines. The stem 
of the grape is too weak to stand without support. In 
nature it grows over the outer branches of trees, some- 
times forming a canopy over the tops of small trees. 
Cultivated grapes are given supports made with posts 
and smooth wire. In order to keep the bulk of the vines 
within limits and to increase their fruitfulness, they are 
severely pruned every winter. This heavy pruning 




Fig. 72. Starting of an open -headed tree. 




1 ig. -o. Ii i.-^ ii.-Liaiij .ie.-Miaijit- lO 
head-in young trees for two or 
three years after planting ; it 
makes them stockier. 



Fig. 74. Improperly trained. The 
limbs start too close together. 
The first big crop will split off 
some of them. 



126 



Elementary Principles of Agriculture 



makes the new branches grow very vigorously, but, as 
the fruit in grapes is borne on the new wood, this is 
very desirable. (See H 157). 

The growth of the vine for the 
first season after transplanting is 
cut back to a single shoot, for 
at least four or five feet. This is 
tied up to the central wire and 
forms the permanent stock, or 
stem. In pruning, after the first 
year, from two to four arms, or 
branches, are left to produce the 
bearing wood. The number and 
length of the arms will vary with 
the vigor of the plants. Weak- 
growing vines are usually left 
with only two or three arms. 
The most desirable form of grape trellis is that shown 
in Fig. 76, known as the Canopy, or Munson trellis. 
This kind of trellis allows more leaves to be exposed to 
the light, and gives more color and flavor to the fruit. 




Fig. 75. Y-system of pruning 
and training grapes. 




Fig. 76. Munson system of training 



CHAPTER XIX 
PROPAGATION OF PLANTS 

190. How Plants Propagate. Plants propagate natu- 
rally by seeds and by the formation of special parts, 
which become separated and independent of the parent 
plant, as bulbs in onions, stolons or runners in straw- 
berries, tubers (thickened stems) in Irish potatoes, and 
by roots, as in the sweet potatoes, and in many other 
special ways. These are natural methods of multipli- 
cation, and take place without man's assistance. Often 
man provides the conditions which favor multiplication 
in these ways. We have already mentioned the impor- 
tant conditions to be controlled in causing the embryo 
plants of sprouting seeds to grow. The other natural 
processes of multiplication, i. e., by tubers, bulbs, etc., 
are matters of every-day knowledge, and are used for 
propagating a variety of plants. We speak of the former 
as propagation by seedage, and the latter as propagation 
by division. 

191. Seedage. In preparing land for seeds, it is not 
sufficient that the seed-bed provide simply the conditions 
favorable for germination, but should be such as is de- 
manded by the nature and peculiarities of the plant. 
Thorough and deep pulverization is desirable for all 
kinds of plants. Make a good seed-bed. It should be 
done long enough before planting to allow for a thorough 
settling of the sub-surface soil, for many crops, such as 
wheat, corn, and other grains, do best on a settled seed- 
bed. In planting, therefore, it is necessary to know the 

(127) 



128 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 

special requirements of the crop. Quick-growing annuals 
and root-crops do best on a very loose seed-bed. Sugar 
beets become fibrous, and may be pushed out of the 
ground if the roots reach a hard subsoil. The depth of 
covering the seeds often has a great influence not only 
on the promptness of germination, but, also, on the 
fruitfulness of the crop. The distance between the seeds 
must be such that there is proper room for the develop- 
ment to the size desired at maturity, or for transplant- 
ing."^ 

192. Propagation by Seedage and by Division Com- 
pared. The embryos in seeds are formed by the union 
of the nuclei of pollen and egg-cells, each from differ- 
ent individuals. In division, the new individual is 
formed from a part of the original plant, and, therefore, 
has only the characters of the original plant, that is, it 
is just Hke the original plant. Seed-propagated plants 
often partake of the characters of two individuals. 
This explains why seed-propagated plants are more 
variable than those propagated by division. For illus- 
tration, we may use blackberries. Fig. 77 shows the 
forms of the leaves of a number of blackberry plants 
grown by Luther Burbank from seeds of a single plant. 
Not all seeds are so variable as the example given, but 
they are, in most cases, variable, and the differences are 
only of degree. Therefore, in order to make sure of propa- 
gating the desirable qualities of some particidar indi- 
vidual, resort is had to propagation by division. 

193. Propagation by Division may be by some of the 

*NoTE. — It is not advisable to discuss the needs of particular crops in a 
general text-book, but a number of interesting comparisons may be made in 
this connection by comparing (1) the season of seedage; (2) depth of planting and 
size of seed ; (3) how the depth of planting affects the potato crop ; (4) the 
duration of the roots in the soil; (5) surface feeding and deep-feeding or tap- 
rooted plants. 




Fig. 77. Variation in leavea of hybrid blackberries, all from the seed of one 
plant. The stems of the plants varied jtist as much in shape, size and 
color. One result of Luther Burbank's experiments in propagation of 
new fruits. 



130 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 

natural processes, such as mentioned in paragraph 190, 
or by artificial processes, such as by layers or buds. 
The process of propagating by cuttings is known as 
cutting propagation. That by layers, as layering; that 
by inserted scions, as grafting; and that by inserted 
buds, as budding. They may be 
termed respectively, cuttage, lay- 
erage, graftage, and buddage. 

194. Layerage. When a branch 
or part is caused to form roots, and 
then severed from the parent 
plant, the plant produced is a 
layer. Fig. 78 shows how a vine of 




Fig. 78. Propagating grapes by layering. 

the grape may be bent down, and covered at inter- 
vals with moist soil. Roots form at the nodes. (See 
^ 68.) After these roots are sufficiently abundant, 
the vine may be cut into pieces, each piece having 
roots, and each planted in a new place as a complete 
plant. Layering is used to propagate grapes, raspberries, 
dewberries, and many other plants. Strawberries, dew- 
berries, blackcap raspberries, and many grasses, such 
as Bermuda grass, Johnson grass, some of the Musquite 
grasses, white clover, and some varieties of sweet pota- 
toes, naturally multiply by their prostrate stems, taking 
root at every node; and man, in practical agriculture. 



Propagation of Plants 



131 



greatly aids it by better preparing the soil. There are 
many plants that do not often multiply in this way, but 
will readily do so if their bodies or branches be bent down 
to the ground and covered with mellow soil. 

195. Cuttage. Rooted cuttings are parts of either 
stems or roots (or leaves, in some cases), cut into small 
pieces and kept under proper conditions until the for- 
mation of roots 
and shoots has 
taken place. Cut- 
tings of some 
kinds of plants 
put out roots very 
readily, as willow, 
dogwood, roses, 
grapes, some 
kinds of plums, 
and berry plants. 
Cuttings may be 
made from dor- 
mant or green 
growing shoots. Geraniums are propagated from green 
cuttings. Green cuttings should be kept moist at all 
times. 

196. Buddage. The callus-tissue of one plant may 
unite with the callus-tissue of another plant, if the two 
plants are of the same kind. Apple may be made to 
unite with apple; peach with peach; but not peach with 
apple. However, peach will unite with plum, because 
peach and plum are closely related. In budding we have 
two parts: (1) A bud of the kind or variety to be propa- 
gated, and (2) a stock. The stock may be a rooted cutting 
or a seedling. In the common ''T"-budding, a sharp 




Fig. 79. Cuttings: a, simple cutting; b, heel cut- 
ting; c, mallet cutting; rf, single-eye cutting. 



132 



Elementary Principles of Agriculture 



knife is used to make a 'T"-like slit through the bark, 
as shown in Fig. SOD. The corners may be raised and a 
bud, cut as shown at E, placed under the edges of the 
bark of the stock, as shown at G. The cambium layer 
of i the bud is left in contact with the cambium layer of 
the stock. The wound is wrapped with soft twine, such 
as cotton yarn, or other suitable material, to hold the 

edges of the bark down and 
keep the bud from drying 
out as at /. After a week or 
ten days, depending on the 
condition of the shoot, the 
bud will be grown to the 
stock, if the work has been 
properly done. In this way 
we may cause one variety of 
plant to unite with another. 
Budding is easiest made and 
most likely to be success- 
ful if made while the stock 
is growing rapidly, or when 
the bark ''sUps," as it is 
called. 

197. Later Care of the 
Bud. After the bud has 
united with the stock, there 
is still much to be done before 
we have a new plant. The 
strings are removed when the 
bud has united with the 
stock. The later condition is 

shown by the bud remain- 
Fig. 80. Steps in propagating . . , . », 

ifpiants by budding mg green and plump. Alter 




Propagation of Plants 133 

a week to ten days, or when the string begins to be over- 
grown, it should be cut and removed. The next step 
is to force the bud into growth. This may be done im- 
mediately, as in ''force budding," or left until the fol- 
lowing spring ; when the top of the stock is cut off just 
above the inserted bud. This causes all the buds below 
to swell and many to form shoots. All the new sprouts 
except the one from the inserted bud should be rubbed 
off when they attain three to five inches in length. This 
causes the new shoot to grow very rapidly. Many per- 
sons leave a foot of stock stem to protect the young 
shoot. As soon as the latter is thoroughly established, 
the stock is pruned close down, as shown in Fig. 80J. 
The final result is that we have a stem of one variety 
growing on a common seedling stock. One may prop- 
agate millions of Elberta, or other variety of peach 
trees in this way, and every tree will bear peaches just 
like the parent variety. The great value of propaga- 
tion by budding is obvious. Choice varieties of peaches, 
plums and apricots are propagated by budding. It is 
often used for pears, apples, roses, and many other 
kinds of plants. Special methods of budding are used for 
pecans and other hardwood trees. 

198. Graftage. In propagation by grafting, two parts 
are used, as in budding. One we call a stock, or root, and 
the other the scion, the latter coming from the plant to 
be propagated. The scion usually consists of a short 
piece of stem. In making the cleft-graft, the stock is 
split open smoothly, as shown in Fig. 81^. The lower 
end of the scion having been trimmed to a wedge is 
inserted as shown at A. Care should be taken to 
see that the cambium layer of stock and scion coincide, 
at least on one side. (Fig. SIC.) The graft is now wrapped 



134 



Elementary Principles of Agriculture 



with waxed cloth to prevent drying out. The two layers 
of cambium grow and unite, and the scion grows out into 
a vigorous shoot. Cleft-grafting is u-ied in propagating 




Fig. 81. Steps in propagating by graftage. A, B, and C, details of cleft graft; 
D, same for tongue graft. 

many kinds of plants, such as apples,, pears, peaches. 
etc. If the graft is made below the ground on a rooted 
stock it is not necessary to wrap with waxed cloth. The 
moist soil, pressed firmly about the union, prevents 
drying out. 

199. In Tongue Grafting, we make a sloping cut on 
both scion and stock. (Fig. 8 ID.) The tongue of one 
is slipped into the cleft of the other, care being taken 
to have the cambium layers together, at least on one 
side. In piece-root grafting, as is usual with pears and 
apples, the graft is wrapped to secure the two pieces in 
an unmovable union until the callus growth has- had 
time to unite. They may be prevented from drying out 
by storing in moist sand or sawdust. It is usual to make 
the grafts during the winter months and plant them in 
the nursery rows early in the spring. (Fig. 82.) 



Propagation of Plants 



135 



200. Care of Buds and Grafts. There are many special 
ways of budding and grafting. All depend on the prop- 
erty of callus-tissue of two different plants to form a close 
living union. In making the cuts, nothing but the 
sharpest of knives should be used. Dull knives produce 
such mutilation that the cambium does not grow out 
and form the callus-tissue promptly, and, as a result, 
the graft or bud fails ''to take." The dormant buds 
on the stock are inclined to form vigorous-growing 
sprouts, but should be rubl^ed off as explained in ^ 197. 

201. Transplanting Nursery Trees. Nursery trees, 
whether propagated from seeds, cuttings, buds, or 
grafts, are removed from the nursery rows and trans- 




Fu. iJ. Grattetl ( 



>Ll Hi UU1^< 1% i.lW 



136 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 

planted in orchards. In removing nursery stock, 
many of the roots are necessarily cut short. In trans- 
planting, the ends of all bruised or mutilated roots should 
be cut off smoothly and the top cut back to keep it in 
balance with the roots. Fig. 63 shows a one-year-old 
budded peach tree trimmed ready for transplanting. 
The young trees should be put into good-sized holes and 
loose, moist soil worked in around the roots, and tramped 
just sufficiently to hold the young tree in position. In 
transplanting nursery stock, the roots should never be 
allowed to become dry. 



CHAPTER XX 
IMPROVING PLANTS AND SEEDS 



202. Domesticated Plants. The cultivated plants 
were originally wild sorts. Some of them have been 
cultivated so long and so improved by man's care that 
the original or wild form is not certainly recognized, such 
as wheat, potato, onion, cabbage, etc. Other sorts have 
been brought into cultivation in comparatively recent 
times, and the original wild form is well known, as the 
tomato, carrot, chrysanthemum. Cultivated forms are 
vastly superior to the wild forms. The strawberries of 
our gardens are more palatable and productive than the 
wild sorts. The cultivated tomato is much larger and 
firmer than the original wild form. Wherever a plant 
has been long under cultivation it has been greatly 
modified. We may ask, ''How are these improvements 
secured?" 

203. Variation in Plants is the starting point for 
improvement. Scientists have a theory that all the 
plant and animal forms de- 
scended from some common 
ancestor. This theory of the 
origin of Uving forms, called the 
''theory of evolution," finds its 
support in the similarity of 
many forms, suggesting rela- 
tionship, and the further fact 
that, through natural varia- 
tion, new forms are constantly 

(137) 




Fig. 83. Old-time and new- time 
forms of tomato. After Bailey. 



138 



Elementary Principles of Agriculture 



coming into existence. Plant -breeders try to cause 
variations. 

204. Fixing Variations. Variations in cultivated 
plants more often resemble earlier and less valuable 
forms. Where improvement is desired, great numbers of 
individuals should be observed and a few of the most 
promising saved for seed. This is called selection. When 
seeds are saved from individual plants with desirable 




Fig. 84. A chance for selection. The two kernels in the center are the best. 
The two outside grains at each end of the upper row are too short. The 
two outside ones in the lower row are too pointed at the tip, showing lack 
of vitality. 

characters, they should be planted away from other 
plants of the same kind. Usually, only a few specimens 
of the progeny will retain the good qualities of the 
parent. Selection^3 should again l)e made. By repeated 
selection, a large per cent may be made to ''come true 
to seed." This is called "fixing the type." Where the 
crop is grown for seed, the field should be gone over and 
all plants that are noticeably inferior or not true to type 
should be removed. This is what the seed-grower calls 
''rogueing." 



Improving Plants and Seeds 139 

205. "Natural Selection." The original wild species 
owe their form and habits to the continuous selections 
which wild nature makes. Wild plants must grow in 
competition with other plants and struggle with them 
for the conditions necessary for growth and the preser- 
vation of their seeds. The size, form and character of 
the leaves, stems, flowers, fruits and seeds, are all im- 
portant features in the struggles for nature's favors. 

206. No Improvement Without Variation. No two 
plants are exactly ahke. The offspring from the same 
individual are not alike. This is, the fact of '^variation.'' 
In some forms the variations are more obvious than in 
others. As a rule, variations in wild plants are less fre- 
quent than in cultivated forms. Variations may be 
desirable or undesirable and progress comes from propa- 
gating only the best selections. Improvements could not 
be made if all individuals were alike. 

207. Variations Are Not Permanent. The Concord 
grape is a variation of the wild fox grape of Massachu- 
setts, discovered by E. W. Bull about 1850. It has 
been propagated by division ever since and is still the 
same grape, because our Concord grape-vines of today 
are only parts of the original plant. However, when the 
seed of Concord grapes are grown, we get the original 
wild fox grapes. Many such seedlings have been grown, 
but none have yet been secured that are the same as the 
parent vine, although some of them are very nearly like 
it. DeVries had a variety of corn, the ears of which had 
eight to twenty-two rows of grains. The average num- 
ber of rows was between twelve and fourteen. He 
planted an ear having sixteen rows and found the aver- 
age in the crop to be fifteen rows per ear. He then planted 
some ears having twenty rows and continued this for 



140 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 

six generations. At the end of this time the average of 
the variety was twenty rows, whereas it had originally 
been only thirteen. The lowest number of rows on any 
ear was twelve and the highest twenty-eight, a number 
that had never been observed in the parent variety. 
The average and the actual number of rows had been 
greatly increased by continuous selection through six 
years, yet, when left for three years without selec- 
tion, the average number of rows w^as back to thirteen. 
Other instances might be mentioned, showing the in- 
constancy of varieties propagated from seed. 

208. Perpetuating Desirable Variations. How may a 
desirable variation be perpetuated? There are two ways: 
(a) Propagating the Plant by Division, (b) By Repeated 
Selection toward an Ideal Type. Many kinds of plants are 
more conveniently propagated from seed, such as the 
grains, cotton, garden vegetables, and the like. We have 
seen how the number of rows of grains on an ear of corn 
was increased. Had the selections been continued for 
ten or more years, the new characters would have been 
more fixed. 

(c) Special Methods. In addition to continual selec- 
tion, plant-breeders sometimes resort to inbreeding to 
fix variations. Plants that normally inbreed, like oats, 
wheat, cotton, and others, are much less variable than 
kinds that are normally cross-fertilized, as corn. 

209. How to Stimulate Variation. While seed-propa- 
gated plants are variable, in fact too much so for the 
average grower, the plant-breeder desires to bring about 
the most decided variations possible in the hope that 
some form of unusual value may be secured. The means 
usually relied upon are: 

(a) Intensive Culture. Plants grown under the most 



hnproving Plants and Seeds 141 

favorable conditions are thought to produce a more 
variable offspring than wild or uncultivated plants. 

(b) By Hybridizing Dissimilar Forms, such as dif- 
ferent varieties, or species. Many valuable varieties of 
fruits have been secured by cross-fertilizing individuals 
belonging to two different species. 

We have already noticed the variations in hybrid 
blackberries (H 192). As a rule, the more dissimilar the 
parents, the greater are the variations in the seedUngs. 
In choosing parents for hybrids, it is well to consider the 
characters of each; for it is possible, though often quite 
difficult, to combine the good qualities of two forms in 
a single individual. 

210. Some Notable Results. Professor Munson found 
that the varieties of the wine grapes, grown with such 
success in Europe, and the fox grapes, in the eastern 
United States, were not suited to the climate of the 
Southwest. He sought to combine the hardiness of the 
native wild grapes of Texas with the fine flavor and 
fruitfulness of the foreign species by hybridizing. Many 
valuable varieties of grapes well suited to Texas con- 
ditions have been produced in this way. Some of the 
most popular are the Carman, Fern, Muench, and 
America, each having one-half of the native Post-oak 
grape blood. The Kieffer pear is a hybrid between the 
Bartlett and Chinese Sand pears. The Bartlett pear has 
a delightful flavor but often suffers from blight. The 
Sand pears are poor in flavor but quite hardy and fruit- 
ful. Many fine varieties of plums, blackberries and dew- 
berries have been produced by hybridization. 

211. Hybridization is accomplished by placing the 
pollen of one variety or species upon the stigma of 
another. To prevent self-pollination, the anthers should 



142 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 

be removed before the pollen is mature. (Fig. 85.) In 
the flowers of wheat, oats, peas, and some grapes, polli- 
nation takes place before the flowers open; hence, in such 
plants it is necessary to remove the anthers very early. 




Fig. 85. Buds or "squares" of cotton. 1 Flower-bud nearly ready to open; 
2, parts removed to expose the stamens; 3, stamens removed to prevent 
self-pollination. After Hartley, United States Department of Agriculture. 

After the anthers have been removed, the stigma should 
be protected from chance-flying pollen by covering the 
flower with a paper bag. The sack may be removed 
when the pollen is to be placed on the stigma. The latter 
may be accomplished by a clean, moistened finger, 
camel's-hair brush, or other means suited to the plants 
in hand. For success in artificial cross-pollination, one 
should fully understand the structure and habits of 
flowers in both parents. 

212. The Hybrid Seedlings. The seedhngs from hybrid 
seed should be closely observed. Out of a great number 
of individuals, only a few, possibly none, will possess the 
desired characters. Even though none are found, it is 
often desirable to grow their seed in the same way for the 
desired form may appear in the second generation. 



Improving Plants -and Seeds 



143 



When a specimen is found having merit, it should be 
given special care and properly propagated (1j 208). 
When a new form is secured and has its characters so 
fixed until they "come true," it is called a variety. 

213. Examples of the Value of New Varieties. The 
improvement of our cultivated plants has been gradual 
because but few men have made it a business to look 
for and select out the best forms. Many men, however, 
have secured decided results in a few years by following 
scientific methods. The work of Professor Munson has 
already been mentioned. Hays was able to secure a 
strain of Minnesota blue -stem wheat that produced 
five bushels more per acre. When wheat ii worth SO 
cents, such seed represents a superior earning value of 
$4 per acre. Many other examples of the great value 



Taylor 



Iron 




Fig. 86. Iron cowpea vs. Black and Taylor, showing comparative resistance to 
the Wilt and Root Knot. From Bulletin United States Department of 
Agriculture. 



144 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 

of propagating seed from desirable individuals might 
be given. The old varieties have, in many cases, been 
■crowded out by the introduction of new and better 
forms. Special attention should be called to the Elberta 
peach, many excellent varieties of grapes, Austin dew- 
berry, Gonzales and other varieties of plums, Triumph 
cotton, and other forms that have added immensely 
to the value of the harvests of the world's staples. A 
variety of the cowpea has been discovered that is not 
only resistant to ''wilt," but to the little worm which 
causes the formation of knots on the roots of other 
varieties. (Fig. 86.) 

213a. Selecting Seed Oats.* Suppose that it is desired to im- 
prove the quality and yielding power of oats. The first question 
to be answered is, "What quality has the oat that makes it valued? 
For what may the oat plant be used, and what does it supply?" 
In the South it is sown in the fall and the field is used for winter 
grazing. It makes a crop of grain which is thrashed and the straw 
and the grain are both used. The grain has most value so that in 
selecting oats we usually select for fine grain. 

Next let us find out what an oat grain is. If we carefully hull 
an oat grain we find a hull composed of two or more pieces, and a 
true seed. If we examine a number of large grains we shall find that 
the large grain usually has a large seed. In selecting the seed then 
we will select the large grain. Now secure a bundle of oats harvested 
and bound just as they come from the fields. Let each student take 
a dozen heads as they come, spread them out on a table and note 

*The foregoing outline of the process of selecting seed oats and suggestions 
for testing the qualities in the plants of the progeny is given merely to illus- 
trate the more fundamental problems of seed improvement, and the common 
-crops or garden plants. They may be carried out by any energetic boy or girl 
in a comer of the garden with noticeable results in improving the plants. As an 
exercise for training the mind in observation, comparison, discrimination, and 
test of ideas, it will prove highly satisfactory to the teacher from the viewpoint 
•of culture training as well as a practical study it. "the relation values." Oats 
have been selected because they may be grown and matured during the school 
year. Local conditions may suggest other material. Some consideration should 
Toe given to the more important crops of the community, such as corn, cotton, 
kafir com, sugar-cane, rice, and the various kinds of fruits. 



Improving Plants and Seeds 145 

the differences in the heads. Now thresh out each head separately 
and put the grains from each head in a small bottle. Note differ- 
ences in color, size, shape, etc. What sorts do you consider the 
best oats? Why? Save the four best and take home and plant one 
seed at a time in drills one foot apart, and one foot in the drill. 
Plant seeds from each head separately, so that if they grow differ- 
ently it may be noticed. Compare the quality of the crop from the 
four different heads. If the school has a school garden they may 
be planted there. 

214. Effect of Cultivation. Cultivated plants are 
shielded from competition with other plants; they are 
planted in prepared ground, given plenty of space, and 
protected from many destructive agencies; their seeds 
are harvested, stored, and throughout the life of the 
plant they are given favorable opportunity to make 
vigorous growth. Cultivated plants are selected, not 
for their ability to propagate under unfavorable con- 
ditions, but because of their power to grow and fruit 
under favorable conditions. Wild plants do better under 
cultivation, but not in the same degree that improved 
varieties do. In selecting seeds for propagation, prefer- 
ence should be given to the forms which show the 
greatest yield under favorable but practical condition. 
The local conditions, whether due to peculiarities of 
climate or conditions produced by culture, often affect 
the result quite as much, possibly more, than the kind 
of seed. A variety may yield very satisfactory harvests 
in one place, and yet be quite unsuited to other locali- 
ties or uses. It has been found to be quite generally 
true that when equal care is given to seed selection, 
home-grown seeds are better yielders. 



CHAPTER XXI 



FUNGUS DISEASES OF PLANTS 



215. Many plants of the farm and garden are subject 
to attack by various kinds of minute plants, known as 
fungi. The "rusts'^ of small grains, plum trees and cot- 
ton, are familiar examples. Also, the '^mildew" of grapes 
and roses. These fungi are thread-like plants. Some 
form their thread-like bodies inside of the plant tissues, 
such as the ''smuts" and ''rusts." (Fig. 87.) Other 
forms, like the mildew, grow on the surface of the 

leaves and stems, but 
send little root -like 
branches (Fig. 89) into 
the plant tissue to 
absorb its substance. 
Another class of fungi, 
known as bacteria, 
never form "threads/' 
or hyphce, as they are 
called by the botanist, 
but only cells. Some 
species of bacteria cause 
disease. The cells are 
formed inside of the 
plant body. 

216. How Fungus 

Fig. 87. A, head of oats affected with smut, ■ni«„4.„ r»«+ TU^i*- "Vr^r^A 

the chaff being only partially destroyed; I'lantS IjCt IJieir I'OOa. 

B, head of oats decidedly smutty, but xr< ^ • J^ „^4. ■Ur>-rT/% +V.i-v 
having the chaff only partially destroyed; Jb UUgl dO UOt nave tne 

C, final stage of oat smut, showing con- ^„^^^ ^V>l«-««,-r^'U-trl fVAQ\ 

dition at harvest time green chlorophy 1(1 48), 

(146) 




Fungus Diseases of Plants 



147 



and, therefore, can not make their food Hke the algse and 
the higher green plants. They are called dependent plants. 
There are many kinds. Plants like the fungi are thought 
by scientists to be greatly changed algse that have lost 




Fig. 88. Spores, or seeds, of the fungus producing the "rust" of wheat. A, 
summer spores, or "red rust" stage; B, same germinating on surface of 
leaf; C, autumn spores, or "black rust" stage. 

the power of carbon assimilation, and are, therefore, 
dependent on host plants to supply the food they need. 
They are called independent plants. Many higher 
plants are dependent in the same way, such as the 
dodder, or '4ove vine." They grow under many con- 
ditions, but all must get their food from plant or animal 
substance. Species that get their food from living plants 
or animals, are called parasites. Those that get their 
food from dead plant or animal remains, are called 
saprophytes. Some species of fungi may get their food 
from either hving or dead organisms. The red or black 
powdery mass which we call "rust," is only a mass of 
spores (one-celled seeds) of the fungus causing the 
disease. The body of the plant exists as a lot of threads 
inside of the host-plant and is not visible to the eye. 
When magnified by the microscope, these fine hyphse 
may be plainly seen. 



148 



Elementary Principles of Agriculture 




Fig. 89. Germinating spores of the potato 
blight fungus. Cross section through a 
portion of a stalk. Two germinating 
spores (a, h) piercing the epidermis, and 
the threads penetrating the cells of the 
leaf. 



217. How Fungi 
Propagate. Fungi prop- 
agate by minute cells, 
called spores. They cor- 
respond to seeds of 
higher plants. They 
require the same con- 
ditions for germina- 
tion as seeds. Fig. 89 
shows a spore of the 
potato blight germinat- 
ing on a leaf. The first 

thread soon enters the plant and absorbs the moisture 

and food substance of the potato leaf. It soon forms a 

crop of spores, sometimes in only a few days. These 

spores are blown to other. 

plants, and soon a whole 

field will be blighted by the 

fungus. Most species of fungi 

grow on only one kind of 

plant. The fungus that 

causes grape mildew (Fig. 

90) does not grow on any 

other kind of plants but 

grapes. The fungus that 

causes the blasting of the 

ears and tassels of corn 

(corn smut) grows only on 

corn. The fungus that causes 

the smut of oats never at- 
tacks corn. However, the Fig. 90. Downy mildew of grape 

(. J.1 i 1 ii {Plasmopora viticola), showing 

fungus that produces the tuft of gonidiophores bearing 

, • 1 J. J 1 gonidia, also intercellular myce- 

rUSt on grains also attacks Uum. After MiUardet. 




Fungus Diseases of Plants 149 

barberry bushes. A number of fungi known as ''rusts" 
have more than one host-plant. The yellow rust of 
apple leaves is the same fungus that produces the so- 
called cedar apples on cedar trees. 

218. Not All Fungi Cause Disease. Some fungi are very 
useful, like the little bacteria that gather the free nitro- 
gen of the air for beans and clover plants; the yeast, 
used in making bread, and in making wines and beers. 
Some fungi are quite large, as the mushrooms and puff- 
balls. Certain kinds are highly esteemed as table deli- 
cacies, and are cultivated. Some species of mushrooms 
should not be eaten because they are poisonous. 

219. Preventing Fungus Diseases. There is no cure 
for the fungus diseases in plants. Prevention is the only 
safeguard against loss from parasitic fungi. This is 
accomplished in four ways: 

(a) Treating the Seeds with substances that destroy 
the disease-causing germs, as scab in potatoes, smut in 
oats and wheat. 

(b) Using Resistant Varieties. Not all plants are 
equally subject to the attacks of parasitic fungi. Some 
varieties are much less injured than others. (Fig. 86.) 
Many varieties of cultivated plants owe their value to 
their power to resist disease. 

(c) Sanitation. When crops are subject to a particu- 
lar disease, all the dead parts, trash and Utter that 
harbor the spores, should be gathered up and burned. 

(d) By Using Fungicides. Fungi are poisoned by ex- 
tremely small amounts of copper salts, or sulphur in 
some cases, while green plants are not affected by small 
amounts. Preparations of copper salts in water are, 
therefore, used to spray plants to protect them from 
attacks of fungi. A compound of copper sulphate (blue 



150 



Elementary Principles of Agriculture 




Fig. 91. The "brown rot" of plums and 
peaches leaves "mummies" on the 
trees. 




Fig. 92. Black rot of grape may be pre- 
vented by timely use of Bordeaux 
mixture 



vitriol) known as Bor- 
deaux mixture (given in 
the Appendix) is most 
often used. The plants are 
sprayed with a very dilute 
solution, so that a thin 
film of the poison covers 
the leaves, stems, buds, 
and fruit of the plant. 
Spores on the surface of 
thoroughly sprayed plants 
are killed, as Ukewise 
others that fall on the 
plants. It is often neces- 
sary to make several ap- 
pUcations, to replace the 
film of spray washed 
away by rains. Sulphur, 
formaldehyde, and other 
substances, are used for 
special diseases. 

220. General Methods 
in Using Sprays. Where 
efforts are made to pre- 
vent the attacks of fungi 
by sprays, it is important 
to know how and w^hen 
infection takes place. No 
general rules can be given. 
The time and manner of 
applying the fungicide 
must be suited to the 
conditions peculiar to the 



Fungus Diseases of Plants 



151 



disease. The agricultural experiment station bulletins 
and special books on spraying will supply full informa- 
tion. 

221. Diseases of Orchard Fruits, such as brown rot of 
peaches and plums (Fig. 91); mildew and black-rot (Fig. 
92) of grapes and other common diseases are controlled 
by spraying with Bordeaux mixture. The first spraying 




Fig. 93. The apple scab may be prevented by spraying. 
From Cornell University Junior Naturalist. 

should be before the buds swell, and repeated every few 
weeks thereafter until the crop is safe. 

222. Grain Smuts. The smuts of oats and wheat 
(Fig. 87) may be prevented by treating the seed before 
planting. The spores become lodged on the grain on the 
hull or fine hairs. When the seeds are planted, the spores 
germinate with the seed. It is peculiar, but true, that 
this fungus can infect the plant only in the seedling 
stage. Therefore, it is plain, that to prevent the blasting 
of the oats by smut, we must destroy the smut spores 
on the seed before planting. This may be done without 
injury to the grain by treating the seeds with dilute 



152 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 

solutions of formaldehyde, or other special prepara- 
tion.* 

223. Potato Scab may be prevented by soaking the 
seed potatoes in a two- or three-per-cent solution of 
formaldehyde for one or two hours. This destroys the 
fungus in the scabs and cracks on the potatoes. 

224. Cotton-root Rot is a serious disease of cotton on 
heavy clay lands. The disease does not attack cotton on 
loose, sandy soils. This fact has suggested the practice 
of earl}^ and deep breaking of land to prevent the growth 
of the fungus. Results are favorable to the practice. 
Rotation is also a means of holding this disease under 
control. The destructive effects of the cotton-root-rot 
fungus is often confused with damage due to alkali. The 
soft, spongy condition of the roots of plants killed by 
this fungus is very characteristic. This fungus also 
attacks okra, orchard trees, shade trees, etc., in fact 
nearly all classes of plants except members of the grass 
family, such as corn, small grains, sorghum, etc. 

*See full directions in Farmers' Bulletin No. 250, United States Department 
of Agriculture. 



CHAPTER XXII 



INSECTS ON THE FARM 



225. There are a great many kinds of insects found 
on the farm, many of them useful, while a few kinds are 
injurious because they feed on the plants and animals 
of the farm. Not all the small animals are properly 
called insects. Insects have just six legs, and their 
bodies are made up of three parts that may be easily 
distinguished: First, the head; second, the thorax, or 
middle part; and third, the abdomen. The spiders, mites 
and scorpions have eight legs. The common sow-bug 
has twelve legs and is more closely related to the crabs 
and craw-fish than to true insects. 

226. Changes of 
Form in the Growth 
of Insects. Nearly 
all species of in- 
sects have several 
forms in passing 
from the egg to the 
mature insect. It 
is like the story of 
^'The House that 
Jack Built." The 
female lays the 
egg; the egg 
hatches into the 

larva (caterpillar ^'^" ^^- stages m the hfe historj of the June- 

, ' bug. After Howard Dnision of Entomology, 

grub, or maggot) ; United states Department of Agriculture. 

(153) 




154 



Elementary Principles of Agriculture 



the larva feeds and grows and turns into a chrysalis, 
or pupa, and out of this comes the mature insect again. 
Take the common May-beetle, or June-bug as an ex- 
ample. (Fig. 94.) The adult lays the egg among grass 
roots in the early spring. From this then hatches a 
small larva (white grub, or '^grub-worm"), which feeds 
on the roots in the soil. It grows rapidly, and, at the 
end of the second season, goes into a dormant state and 
changes into a pupa, and, at the end of two years, emerges 
from the ground as a May-beetle, or June-bug. In the 
larval stage, the June-bug often does much damage to 
the roots of grasses, corn, wheat and garden plants, 
while the adult feeds on the leaves of trees — often fruit 
trees. 

The caterpillar stage in insect development is quite 
unhke the mature butterfly stage, and only the closest 
watching of the life history of the ''wiggle-tail" convinces 




Fig. 95. Plum curculio. 1, larva inside of peach; 2, mature insect depositing 
egg. After Quaintance, United States Department of Agriculture. 



Insects on the Farm 155 

us that it is a mosquito in another form. The Httle 
^^worm" (larva); :^und in the phim, is quite different 
from the shy curcuUo beetle that laid the egg. (Fig. 95.) 

227. How Insects Differ from Other Animals. Insects, 
Uke the frogs and snakes, are cold-blooded animals. 
The temperature of their bodies changes with that of 
the air or water, in whichever they happen to be. When 
cold weather comes, they find shelter under fallen leaves, 
sticks, stones, or may burrow into the ground and there 
remain quiet until warm weather returns. This way of 
passing the winter is called hibernation. While hibernat- 
ing, they may be frozen stiff, or the eggs and larva may 
be frozen, but when the weather becomes favorable, 
many kinds will move about just as lively as ever. 
Severe freezing may kill some, but many will survive. 
Most animals have the bony skeleton inside of the body, 
but insects have the hard bony part on the outside. The 
muscles of insects are attached to the outer body wall and 
not to internal bones, as in other animals. Insects do 
not breathe through a mouth, but have little breathing 
pores along the sides of the body. The nerves of the 
insect that detect odors and guide it to its kind and food 
are usually in the little ''feelers,'' or antennce, or sometimes 
in the segments of the legs. 

Some species of insects die soon after laying eggs, 
often before the eggs hatch; others may hve on through 
the summer and produce several broods, as in the case 
of the cotton boll-weevil. 

228. The Food of Insects. Insects are very peculiar 
about the food they eat. Just hke the many species of 
parasitic fungi, each species feeds, usually, on just one 
kind of plant, or on closely related plants. In such cases 
we speak of the plant as the ''host" for a particular 



156 



Elementary Principles of Agriculture 



insect. The Colorado potato beetle (Fig. 96) is a native 
of the West, living on the western species of night- 
shades. When the Irish potato was introduced, it found 
a plant closely akin to its regular food plants, and on 
which it thrives to such an extent that it takes its 
name from the new host-plant. Sometimes there is a 
wide difference in the kinship of the host-plants. The 
feeding habits of the ''boll-worm" of cotton, or the 




Fig. 96. Colorado potato beetle. After Riley, a, eggs; 
b, larvse; c, mature beetle. 

''ear-worm" of corn, the same insect in both cases 
(Fig. 97), is a striking exception to the general rule, 
because it feeds on a number of different kinds of plants. 
When insects do not find acceptable host-plants, they 
die. Many insects are exclusively fiesh-eating, such as 
the common "doodle-bugs," wasps, lady-bugs, and many 
species of wood ants. Red bugs and mosquitos are 
common forms of blood-sucking insects. Many para- 
sites are solely responsible for the spread of diseases. 



Insects on the Farm 



157 



The ticks, which are closely related to true insects, on 
cattle, are carriers of disease. Cattle do not have the 
splenic fever (sometimes called Texas fever) except 
when the germs are carried by ticks that bite them. 
The common bee lives on the nectar and pollen of 
flowers. It is not the only insect that lives on nectar. 
Most species of butterflies, moths, bumblebees, etc., are 
nectar-loving insects. We have already learned that 
these insects are very use- 
ful in bringing about the 
pollination of flowers. 

229. The Feeding Habits 
of Different Stages. Many 
kinds of insects feed on 
plants cultivated by man. 
They attack the plants in 
various stages and ways. 
Most frequently it is the 
larval stage (caterpillar, 
grub, maggot) that destroys 
the plants by eating the 
leaves. The Colorado potato- 
bug lays its eggs on the 
leaves. The young larvae 
are, therefore, hatched out- 
right at the breakfast table, 
the caterpillar stage occurs in great numbers, and they 
are, hence, often spoken of as ^'army worms," of which 
the ^^cotton army worm" is a common example in the 
South. Some caterpillars, known as cutworms, work only 
at night. When daylight comes, they are concealed 
under clods, and any trash that may be present. They 
are called '^cutworms" because they have a habit of cut- 




Fig. 97. Corn ear-worm or cotton 
boll -worm. After Quaintance, 
Bureau of Entomology, United 
States Department of Agricul- 
ture. 

In some species of insects, 



158 



Elernentary Principles of Agriculture 




ting off young plants near the ground. They are the 
caterpillar stage of several kinds of night-flying moths. 

(Fig. 98.) 

230. How Insects Get 
Their Food, (a) By 
Living inside the Plant. 
It quite often happens 
that the egg is deposited 
inside of some part of 
the plant and the larva 
develops there, as in 
the case of the larva of 
the plumgouger. As the 
larva is inside of the 
plant (Fig. 95), it can- 
not be destroyed by any 
of the sprays, and, in 
such cases, effort is made to catch and destroy the adults 
before the eggs are laid. 

(b) By Feeding on the Leaves. Insects that feed 
directly on the leaves have mouth parts that are pro- 
vided with scissors-like jaws by which their food is cut 
from the plant. To destroy insects that feed in this way, 
it is sufficient to cover the leaves with some suitable 
arsenic compound by sprays. When they eat the leaves, 
they consume enough of the poison to induce their 
death. Paris green, London purple, and white arsenic 
are the most usual poisons. Grasshoppers, locusts, and 
army worms are killed in this way. In some portions of 
Texas they have the leaf-cutting ants, which attack 
peach trees in great numbers and cut and carry off 
nearly all the leaves. These ants do not eat the leaves, 
but carry them into their underground nests and use 



Fig. 98. Cutworm and moth. After 
Howard. Bureau of Entomology, 
United States, Department of Agri- 
culture. 



Insects on the Farm 



159 



them as a soil on which to grow a fungus which they 
do eat. These ants are real ^'farmer insects," in that 
the food they eat is grown by their own efforts. Carbon 
bisulfide, poured into their nest, sometimes destroy 
the colony. 

(c) By Sticking the Juices. We may distinguish 
another group of insects by the way they get their food 
from the plant or animal. Instead of having jaws with 
which they may bite off and chew their food, their 
mouth parts are shaped into a kind of tube which they 





/STv 





Fig. 99. Squash bug. A, eggs on leaf; b, egg-shell; c, d, e, f, nymphs; g, adult. 
, After Chittenden. Bureau of Entomology, U. S. Department of Agriculture. 

use to suck blood or sap. The squash-bug (Fig. 99), 
and the chinch-bug get their food by suckino-. Plant 
Hce, such as the green bug, and San Jose scale (Fig. 100) 
are also sucking insects. 



160 



Elementari/ Principles of Agriculture 



230a. Structure of Insects. For this exercise the pupil should 
secure good specimens of the grasshopper and butterfly, as these 
two insects illustrate the difference of mouth parts as seen in insects. 
Some, as the grasshopper, have biting mouth parts, while others, 
as the butterfly, squash bug, etc., have mouth parts suited to pierce 
the plants and suck out their juices, (a) Note the large eyes in the 
front and side of the head of each insect. These are called com- 
pound eyes because they are made up of a great number of simple 
eyes. (6) Note also the feelers or antennae, and the mouth parts. 
The large black jaws of the grasshopper are used for biting, while 
the long coiled tongue-like organ of the butterfly is used for obtain- 
ing food by sucking out the nectar from flowers. 




San Jose scale on plum. A, natural size; 6, magnified; 
c, greatly magnified. 

230b. The next region of the body is called the thorax. In each 
insect the thorax is divided into three parts, each division has a 
pair of legs attached. All insects have six legs, and are sometimes 
called Hexapoda on this account. On each insect you will find two 
pairs of wings. These wings are attached to the second and third 
divisions of the thorax. Notice that the wing of the butterfly is 
covered with a "powder." This powder is made up of small scales 
attached to the wing in rows overlapping each other very much 
like the shingles of a roof. The wing of the grasshopper is smooth 
and firm with a large number of small lines running through it, 
called veins. 

230c. The next division of the body is called the abdomen, 
which is made up of a number of segments or rings. By looking 
along the side of the abdomen of the grasshopper there will be seen 
a number of small openings or pores. These are the breathing pores 



Insects on the Farm , 161 

and nearly all insects have such breathing pores on the abdomen 
and thorax. At the tip of the abdomen the segments are changed 
a little in their form and size. This tip of the abdomen of the 
female is the egg depositor. The grasshoppers usually bore down 
into the ground and deposit their eggs, while other insects deposit 
their eggs in the bark of trees, young fruit, etc. 

230(1. All insects are constructed very much alike, there being 
slight differences in certain parts in the different kinds. Collect 
some of the common insects from the plants in the school-garden. 




Fig. 101. This apple might have been kept sound by spraying. 
From Cornell University Junior Naturalist. 

or from the fields, and determine whether they have sucking or 
biting mouth parts. 

231. General Method of Destroying Injurious Insects. 

The number of injurious insects appearing is affected 
by their food supply, weather conditions, and their nat- 
ural insect enemies. Wherever it is possible, encour- 
agement should be given to the natural enemies, some 
of which will soon be mentioned. Sometimes they can 
be killed by running heavy rollers over the fields, plow- 
ing or harrowing. The leaf-eating forms can frequently 



162 



Elementary Principles of Agriculture 



be killed by spraying the leaves with poisons. Others, 
like the sucking insects, may be killed by spraying 
directly onto the insect some substance that kills by 
contact, such as oils, alkah washes, etc. The poison 
must not be strong enough to injure the plants. In some 
cases, the insects may be killed by treating the plants 
with poisonous fumes or gases, such as tobacco smoke, 




1 ig lUJ ,^pia>iiig. 

and the deadly hydrocyanic acid gas, used especially 
for San Jose scale. Where plants are sprayed to prevent 
fungous diseases, the poison for insects may be applied 
in the same solution at the same time. There are many 
kinds of special machines for applying fungicides and 
insecticides. They are fully described in special books 
and bulletins. 

232. Classification of Insecticides. Substances that 
are used to poison insects are called insecticides. There 



Insects on the Farm 163 

are many substances used to kill insects. They may be 
grouped into three classes, according to the manner in 
which they poison the insect. 

(a) Food, or Internal Poisons, are substances which 
poison by being taken into the digestive tract of the 
insect. This class includes various arsenical compounds, 
such as Paris green, London purple, lead arsenate. 
Poisons of this class are used for insects that chew their 
food, as the leaf-eating forms, unless the use of the poi- 
son render the plants dangerous for food, such as 
cabbage. 

(b) Contact Poison. Substances that destroy by 
attacking the body of the insect, such as washes of 
caustic alkalies, oils, etc. They are used for sucking 
insects, i. e., those having beaks, such as the San Jose 
scale. 

(c) Tracheal Poisons. Substances which enter the 
breathing pores of the insect and cause death by poison- 
ing or suffocation. Smoke, and the deadly hydrocyanic 
acid gas, Pyrethrum, or 'insect powder," and carbon 
bisulphide, belong to this class. 




Fig. 103. The cotton-boll worm. After Quaintance and Brues. 1, Eggs on corn 
.silk, twice natural size; 2-4, early larval .stages, .somewhat enlarged; 5, 
boll -worm eating into half -grown ball, natural size; 6, mature larva, 
natural size; 7, boll-worm on green tomato, one -half natural size; 8, 
full grown larva burrowing into soil for pupation; 9a, showing line of 
movement of larva into the soil; 96, pupal chamber with pupa at bottom; 
10, mature pupa, slightly magnified; 11, boll -worm moth with wings 
e.xpanded, natural size. 



CHAPTER XXIII 



SOME SPECIAL INJURIOUS INSECTS 



233. Insects that Attack Cotton. There are several 
species of insects that injure the cotton plant, such as 
the cotton army or leaf-worm, cotton boll-worm, the 
Mexican boll-weevil, and the cotton aphis. The leaf- 
worm and boll-worm may be destroyed by spraying 
or dusting with arsenical poisons. 

234. The Boll-Worm of cotton, damages cotton by 
destroying the locks of the bolls. The same insect 
damages the tips of more than 75 per cent of the ears 
in the corn fields. The damage to corn ears is probably 
fully 3 to 5 per cent of the crop. The pupae hibernate 
in the ground through the fall and winter and do not 
mature into moths until late in the spring. These facts 

suggest the advisability of early fall 
plowing to expose the pupa to the 
severe weather conditions of the 
winter seasons, predacious insects 
and birds. (What other reasons have 
already been mentioned for early 
plowing?) Advantage is taken of the 
habit of the insect of attacking corn 
and cowpeas in preference to cotton, 
to protect the latter. 'Trap rows" of 
corn and cowpeas are planted near 
the cotton to attract the moths. In 
this way the damage to the cotton 
is lessened. Corn is used, also, in pro- 
(165) 




Fig. 104. Mexican Cotton- 
boll weevil. (Enlarged 
five times.) Howard, 
United States Depart- 
ment of Agriculture. 



166 



Elementary Principles of Agriculture 



tecting tomatoes from this insect. Much better results 
will be secured if the corn is planted late. (Fig. 103). 

235. The Mexican Boll- Weevil is a true weevil, 
resembling very closely the plum curculio. It has been 



^^^^m 



Fig. 105. Mexican boll-weevil. A, ap- 
pearance of normal " square ; B, 
"flaring" following the deposit of 
eggs in the unopened bud; C, part 
of flower bud removed to show 
larva. 



known in Mexico for years, 
though it was not found 
in this country until in the 
early nineties. The mature 
stage in the life history of 
the Mexican boll-weevil is 
shown in Fig. 104. These in- 
sects leave their winter shelter early in the spring and 
deposit the eggs in the flower-buds or squares. The 
weevil does not deposit eggs in the young bolls when 
the flower-buds are to be found. When the egg is thrust 



Some Special Injurious Insects 



167 



into the flower-bud ("stung/' as it is sometimes 
improperly called), the square or calyx is soon 
''flared," as shown in Fig. 105, and then drops to 
the ground. In about twenty-five or thirty days from 
the laying of the egg, the mature weevils emerge from 
the fallen flower-buds and start a new generation. 
Each female weevil, starting early in the season, may, 
if conditions are favorable, 
produce enough to destroy a 
crop of cotton. The adult 
weevils hibernate in winter in 
the many unopened damaged 
bolls or under any kind of trash 
that may be available, espe- 
cially in the leaves of nearby 
woods. During the following 
spring, they begin to emerge in 
considerable numbers after the 
first few weeks of warm weather. 
They feed on the tender por- 
tions of the young cotton. The 
eggs are deposited in the first 
young flower-buds. In 1904, it was estimated that the 
loss to Texas cotton -growers was equal to 450,000 
bales, but, by using improved varieties of cotton, early 
planting, distance between rows, and other measures, 
a fair yield of cotton is now secured. More than thirty 
species of birds are known to use the boll -weevil 
as food. Ants, ichneumon flies, wasps and other agen- 
cies assist man in his fight to keep this pest under 
control. 

236. The Spread of the Boll- Weevil. Fig. 107 shows 
the advances of this great pest since it was first dis- 




Fig. 106. Late-fall boll. shoAving 
how beetles hide between boll 
and involucre. 



Some Special Injurious Insects 



169 



covered in the United States. Birds, snakes and pre- 
daceous insects assist man in holding the boll-weevil 
under control, but no fact has yet been discovered that 
suggests that it will not spread over the entire cotton- 
growing section. 

237. Tent Caterpillars are often found in fruit trees. 
They are easily discovered in the spring by their large 
webs supported on the branches. They may be found 
much earlier as small bunches of eggs, like those shown 
in Fig. 108c. They are laid late in the summer and cov- 
ered by a sticky 
substance to pro- 
tect them from the 
winter rains. They 
hatch out usually 
just about the 
time the buds open 
and the caterpil- 
lars feed on the 
young buds and 
leaves. They soon 
spin a delicate 
cloth-like web or 
tent, to which they 
retire at night, and 
in bad weather. 
These caterpillars 
are well marked 
with dots and lines 
along the bodies 
that are character- 
istic for each spe- 
cies. After a time 




Fig. 108. The tent-caterpillar, 
c, egg-cluster; d, cocoon; ( 



a and b, larv; 
full-grown. 



170 



Elementary Principles of Agriculture 



they leave the tree and each individual spins a paper- 
like case, called a "cocoon," in some sheltered place. 
The adult moth emerges from the cocoon in a few 
weeks, and lays the eggs as mentioned above. These 
changes may be observed by bringing the almost mature 
caterpillars into wire-screened cages. These caterpillars 
are attacked by many parasites, birds, snakes, frogs, 
and particularly by birds. The orchard should be in- 
spected in the early spring for webs. 

238. "Wire-worms" are very com- 
mon in fields. They are the larval stage 
of various species of 
night-flying beetles, 
such as the cUck- 
beetles. The adult hves on the 
nectar obtained from flowers 
while the larval stage lives in 
the ground and thrives on the 
roots, leaves, and stems of 
young plants. 

239. Plant -lice, or Aphids, 
are common everywhere. There 
are many kinds, and all are 
quite small. Plant-lice are soft- 
bodied, usually green, Uke the 
''green bug," but sometimes 
colored red or black according 
to the plant they are infesting. 
Most of them are wingless, 
though some of them will 
have two pairs of transpar- 
ent wings. They almost al- 
ways occur in colonies, 




Fig. 109. A corn-plant growing 
in a root-cage infested by 
wire-worms and click-beetles 
(from a specimen in the Cor- 
nell Insectary). 



Some Special Injurious Insects 



171 




Fig 



frequently of immense numbers. They feed upon the 

leaves, buds, tender stems, and even the roots in some 

sorts of plants. They 

do much damage by 

sucking the plant j uices. 

Some species secrete a 

substance known as 

''honey dew," which is 

sought after by ants. 

The Ants care for the 

aphis and protect them 

from the depredations 

of predaceous insects. 

The scale insects are 

classed with the plant- 

Uce. The San Jose scale 

is the most serious re- 
presentative. 

239a. Colonies of plant-lice may be found frequently on road- 
side weeds, sometimes under the folded edges of leaves tended by 
ants. Such a colony should be closely observed. Small tubes may 
be seen on the abdomen of the lice covered with drops of honey 
dew. The ants have a way of stroking the lice to make them give 
up the honey dew. This action is often fancifully called "ants 
milking their cows." 

240. Insects Injurious to Stored Grain. The insects 
that damage stored grain are the larvae of moths and 
beetles, and several species of weevils closely akin to 
the plum-gouger and cotton boll- weevil. Corn, wheat, 
peas, and many other seeds are often damaged by these 
insects while stored. Some species are very destructive. 
The ''rice-weevil" is the most destructive, particularly 
to corn, peas, barley, kafir corn, etc. The two most 
common species of weevil are shown in Fig. 111. The 



10. The spring -grain aphis, a, wing- 
less female; 6, larva; c, pupa; d, winged 
migrant. After Webster, United States 
Department of Agriculture, 



172 



Elementary Princi'ples of Agriculture 



the rice-weevil is the larger, and has a dull brown color. 
The eggs are laid in the corn, often before it is gathered. 
During warm weather it requires about six weeks to 
mature a weevil from the egg, while, in cold weather, 

they multiply very 
slowly. The egg- 
laying continues 
over a consider- 
able period and, as 
it requires such a 
short while to ma- 
ture a new brood, 
it is no wonder 
that they are found 
in such numbers in 
grain stored for 
any considerable 
time. It is esti- 
mated that, in the 
course of a season, 
they mature six or 
more generations, amounting to 500 or more individuals 
from a single pair. 

241. The Grain Moths do more damage to the stored 
grain than the weevils. The most common species is 
the Angoumois grain moth, so named from a province 
of Angoumois, France. It attacks grain in the field as 
well as in the bin. The adult somewhat resembles the 
common clothes moth. It is light grayish brown and 
about a half-inch across when the wings are expanded. 
The eggs are deposited in clusters of twenty to thirty 
and require only about four to seven, or more, days 
to hatch the caterpillars. The latter bore into the 




Fig. 111. Granary weevil, a, adult; b, 
c, pupa; d, rice weevil. All enlarged 
Chittenden. 



larva; 
After 



Some Special Injurious Insects 



173 



grain, and, after feeding on the starchy matter for about 
three weeks, form a thin silken cocoon, from which it 
emerges a few days later. About thirty-five days are 
used in passing from egg to adult. Four to, possibly, eight 
broods are formed during the year. When grain is stored 
in bulk, only the surface layers are infested. Both the 
weevils and moths are subject to attacks by parasites. 
242. Preventing Injury to Stored Grain. To reduce 
the injury to stored grain, use is made of repellants like 
napthelene (so-called ''moth balls")? salt, air-slaked 
lime, and other substances which, while not poisonous, 
drive the insect out. A temperature of 125° Fahr. is 
sufficient to kill weevils, though more than 150° Fahr. 
may be endured by dry grain without loss of ger- 
minating power. Treating the grains to the vapors of 
bisulfide of carbon in tight bins is by far the most satis- 
factory means of protecting stored grain. In destroying 
the insects, use one pound to one hundred bushels of 
grain. 




CHAPTER XXIV 
USEFUL INSECTS 

243. Useful Insects. Some insects are useful because 
they supply food, as the honey-bee. Others supply 
materials for clothing, as the silkworm. Still others, as 
we have seen, cause flowers to set fruit by carrying 
pollen from flower to flower. (See ^ 140.) There are 
many species which are especially useful in man's battle 
with the forces of nature, because they prey upon the 
injurious insects. 

244. Wasps. There are many kinds of wasps. The 
common ''red wasps" and yellow jackets,''" with their 
paper nests made out of the fragments of plants, are 
well known. The mud-dauber is another common wasp, 
There are many species of wasps that do not live in 
colonies like the ones just mentioned, but live singly, 
and are, hence, called "soUtary wasps." The wasps are 
quite closely related to the domestic bees, and bumble- 
bees, but instead of gathering nectar and pollen for 
food, as the bees do, they feed on other insects. The mud- 
dauber fills the mud-cells with the bodies of young 
spiders, flies, etc., and before sealing up the hole, de- 
posits an egg. The food for the larva is there ready for 
it when it is hatched. Wasps are said to catch the biting 
flies that w^orry stock, and, especially, the larvse of the 
boll- weevil. Wasps' nests should not be destroyed 
except, possibly, in orchards. 

245. Ichneumon Flies, of which there are many 
kinds, are closely related to the bees and wasps. The 

(174) 



Useful Insects 



175 



adult often feeds on nectar. The usefulness of this 
class of insects is due to the fact that the young are 
parasites. They do not secure their prey by force. 
Instead of catching the insects and carrying them to the 
young larvae, their eggs are deposited in the bodies of 
their victims, and there grow into grubs. The grubs 
either mature in the body of the hosts, or come out and 
mature in the ground. The eggs are most often deposited 
in caterpillars, though sometimes in the chrysalis and 





Fig. 113. A, dead "green bug," showing hole 
from which the matured parasite emerges. The 
top figure shows the Hd still attached, but 
pushed back; the bottom figure shows the para- 
site emerging; B, principal parasite of the 
spring grain-aphis or "green-bug;" adult female, 
highly magnified. After Webster, United States 
Department of Agriculture. 



on the adult stage, or even in the eggs. We find here 
the same specialization in hosts that we noticed in the 
fungi, and plant-eating insects. Each species of parasitic 
fly rarely attacks more than one species of insect. Two 
species (Fig. 113), of the ichneumon fly attack the 
green bug. They thrive only during the warm weather 
of spring, however, while the green bugs may endure 
much cold weather. Below central Texas, the parasitic 
flies are active at all seasons and that section has never 



176 



Elementarij Principles of Agriculture 



been seriously damaged by the green bug. In other 
parts, the entire grain crops have been almost destroyed 
several times because the cool weather retarded the 
multiplication of the parasites. 

Ichneumon flies are parasitized by other ichneumon 
flies, and these in turn by others, reminding one of the 
old adage that "Large fleas have smaller fleas to bite 

'em." 

246. Ants. Many 
species of ants live on 
the eggs and larvae of 
other insects. They 
are very useful in cot- 
ton fields because they 
destroy many boll- 
weevils. The common 
red stinging ant lives 
on weed seeds and wild 
grain. 

247. Lady Bugs are 
another class of insect- 
eating insects. They 
feed on eggs of the 
Colorado potato bugs, 
chinch bugs, and plant- 
Uce. They are easily 
recognized by their red 

and black-spotted color. There are two kinds of lady 
bugs found in the Southwest. One species, Megilla 
maculata (Fig. 114), is especially active in feeding on 
the green bug on grains, while another, Hippodamia 
convergens, is more active on the plant-lice on cotton 
and melons. The latter will lay about fifteen eggs per 




Fig. 114. Two common species of lady bugs. 
a, hippodamia; b. megilla; c and d, larva 
stages. After Chittenden, United States 
Department of Agriculture. 



Useful Insects 177 

day, and often a total of 500 eggs. These are deposited 
on leaves in clusters of from a few to fifty in a place. 
A lady bug will eat about fifty aphis per day. We recog- 
nize these insects as a benefit to mankind in various 
ways. 

248. Parasitic Insects are possibly the most import- 
ant class of beneficial insects. Without them, the 
locusts and grasshoppers, the caterpillars of butter- 
flies and moths, and many other kinds would destroy 
all the plants. Every farm should have a ''lady bug 
patch." Unless these insects have food during the 
winter months, they die. They require plenty of insect 
food, and this should be provided by growing some crop 
that harbors insects through the winter. Some winter- 
growing plant, like rape which has a winter insect para- 
site, the cabbage aphis. The lady bugs, thus having 
food through the winter, grow and multiply until spring 
when food naturally becomes abundant. 



CHAPTER XXV 



WILD BIRDS AND OTHER INSECT- 
EATING ANIMALS 

249. Most Birds Benefit the Farmer, because their 
food consists very largely of harmful insects, weed seeds, 
mice, etc. Some birds eat the grain or do much damage 
to the fruit, but without the birds, the insects would be 
far more destructive. In 1753, Benjamin Franklin 
wrote to a friend: — ''In New England they once thought 
blackbirds useless, and mischievous to the corn. They 
made efforts to destroy them. The consequence was, 
the blackbirds diminished, but a kind of worm which de- 
voured their grass, and which the blackbirds used to feed 
upon, increased prodigiously; then, finding their loss 
in grass greater than their gain in corn, they wished 
again for the blackbirds." 

250. Birds Like Insect Food Best. Every one has 
noticed how the field-larks, and other birds fly into the 

newly plowed furrow. They 
are not looking for freshly 
planted seeds as some sup- 
pose, but for worms and in- 
sects which the plow uncovers. 
They prefer insects, but will 
eat weed or grain seeds if in- 
sects are scarce. In summer 
the field -lark (or ''meadow- 
lark," as he is most often called 
in the North) eats insects 




Fig. 115. Food of the meadow 
lark by months. 



(178) 



Wild Birds and Other Insect-eating Animals 179 



almost entirely, but in winter when he cannot find 
insects, he has to eat weed seeds, and waste grain. (See 
Fig. 115 and table of food by months.) The young of 
all kind of birds, including those of the vegetable- 
feeding adults, feed largely on insects. (See Fig. 116.) 



Food for the Year. 



Months 



January 13 

February 1 

March 12 

April 28 

May 8 

June 20 

July 18 

August 28 

September 29 

October 40 

November 22 

December 19 



Stomachs Animal 

Examined Food 

Per cent 

24.36 

.00 

73.14 

77.51 

97.99 

95.79 

97.32 

99.35 

99.20 

94.39 

77.08 

39.22 



Grain 

Per cent 

75.28 

25.00 

17.00 

15.10 

1.88 

2.10 

.00 

.00 

.40 

.61 

6.50 

32.70 



Total foryear 238 72.95 14.71 



Weed 

Seeds 

Per cent 

.36 

75.00 

9.86 

7.39 

.13 

2.11 

2.68 

.65 

.40 

5.00 

16.42 

28.08 

12.34 



Total 
Per cent 
100 
100 
100 
100 
100 
100 
100 
100 
100 
100 
100 
100 

100 



251. Beneficial Birds Should not be Killed for food, 
neither for sport, nor for decorations for hats. Every 




Fig. 116. Diagram showing proportions of food of English sparrow {Passer 
domesticus), young and adult. 



180 



Elementary Principles of Agriculture 



time one feels tempted to kill birds, he should not only 
think of the good they do by destroying insects and 
weed seeds, but possibly not far off there is a group of 
tender nestlings waiting for mama or papa bird to come 
home with a morsel of food, to check the pangs of hunger. 
When women decorate their hats with aigrettes, they 
encourage selfish persons to kill harmless birds. It is 
against the laws of many states to kill the useful birds. 
No one should want to destroy them. Birds should be 
protected at all seasons. Define ''game birds." ''Non- 
game birds," as used in the laws of your state. 
Ir 252. English Sparrows (Fig. 117) Uve almost exclu- 
sively on the farmers' crops, besides destroying the 




Fig. 117. English sparrow. 

eggs and nests of other birds. They should be de- 
stroyed. The native species of sparrows are insect- 
eating birds. 

253. Migration of Birds. Some birds live all the time 
in the same locality, Hke the partridge, Texas road- 
runner, and downy woodpecker, the sparrow, and the 



Wild Birds and Other Insect-eating Animals 181 



cardinal, while other kinds, as the robin, bluejay, etc., 

spend one season in one part of the world, and the 

others elsewhere. 

Everybody knows f 

that the wild geese 

''fly over" in the 

fall, going south to 

the warm salt 

waters, and back 

again in the spring 

on their way to the 

breeding-grounds in 

Canada. Likewise, 

the field-lark spends 

the summer in the 

North, and in the 

fall and winter he 

makes his home 

in the South. (Fig. 

118.) 

253a. Make a list 
of the kinds of birds, 
found in the county. 

How many kinds are permanent residents, and how many visit 
for only a part of the year? 

254. The Feeding Habits of Birds. The farmer is 
interested in the birds because they eat the insects that 
destroy his crops. The illustrations, Figs. 119 and 
120 show how much of each kind of food some common 
birds eat. Some birds, like the swallows, and scissor- 
tailed flycatcher, live on insects almost entirely. Others, 
like the dove, eat nearly all weed seeds and grain, but 
most birds eat some of both. It will be interesting to 




Fig. 118. Meadow lark or field lark. 




5PIDFRS 

1 Bouse M-en 



2 SonaSparroiv 3 Orchard Oriole 




10 RedHeadod 
Woodpecker 

Beneficial Animals 



11 Red IVingfed 
Blackbird. 



12 American 
Crotr 



Fru its 






Grain 



Injurious An imals 
^^M mid Seed 



Fig. 119. Diagram illustrating the proportions of the food of various beneficial 
and destructive birds. 




22 Toa 



25 HornedLizzard 24Chidten Snake 



3eTieficial Animals 



Fruits 



oS2^ 



Grain 



Injuriousjlnima Is 
^^^ JfildSeeds 



Fig. 120. Diagram illustrating the proportions of the food of various beneficiai 
and destructive birds. 



184 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 

watch the many kinds of birds in your neighborhood, 
and see how they catch their food. The scissor-tails 
capture the insects that fly during the day. At night 
the whippoorwills and night-hawks begin to fly, and 
catch the insects that the day-flying birds miss. Some 
kinds of birds, Hke the WTen and vireos, go carefully from 
leaf to leaf, looking for the small, half-hidden insects 
on the under sides. Still, again, the busy woodpecker 
goes over the bark looking for insect eggs and larvae, 
or boring for ants and wood-worms. Other birds, like 
the larks and sparrows, scan the ground for creeping 
insects, while still others, with long legs and bills, go to 
the bottom of the pool for the little swimmers that are 
seemingly safe from molestation. 

254a. If a bird eats on an average one hundred insects a day, 
and there are three birds to every acre of land, how many insects 
will they eat in a year? How many insects would they take from 
the largest orchard in the neighborhood? 

254b. A quail was found to have 10,000 weed and grass seeds 
in the craw when killed. If each quail in a covey of fifteen should 
destroy this many weed seeds daily for a year, how many weeds 
would be destroyed? 

255. Change of Feeding Habits in Migration. Some 
birds that spend a part of a season in one part of the 
country, and the other in a distant section, change 
their feeding habits. A good illustration is the bobolink, 
or rice bird. It breeds in the North, and feeds largely 
on insects, and but sKghtly on grain. In the South it is 
called ''rice bird'' because it prefers the rice field, 
where 50 to 80 per cent of its food is rice. 

256. Bird-houses. Instead of shooting at birds, 
and throwing stones to scare them, we should encourage 

-the useful birds to build their nests around the barns 
and in the orchards. Many persons build houses to 




CARDINAL 

Upper Figure, Female: Lower Figure, Male. 

(One-half natural size.) 



Wild Birds and Other Insect-eating Animals 185 

attract martins and sparrows. A simple house may be 
made with old tin cans, as shown in Fig. 121, using a 
board for a roof, and allowing part of the top of the can 




Fig. 121, A good way to use tin cans. 

to remain, to make a lighting place. A good house for 
martins is shown in Fig. 122. 

257. Other Animals that Destroy Insects. ''Horned 
frogs" (though they are really horned lizards) and 
common frogs live on insects, as, also, do most snakes. 
Even the old chicken snakes make waj^ with many times 
more rats and mice than they do with young chickens. 




Fig. 122. A simple Martin house. 



-fl 






' 


i 


H 




4 


H 






w 


1 

^^^gum.. -^ 


3 


^^^^^ 




r\ 


' .-<',- ■ 












Fig. 123. 



Side, front and rear view of Hereford cow, " Lady Briton 16, 
owned by Comstock & Son, Albany, Mo. 



PART 11 



CHAPTER XXVI 
ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 

258. Utilizing Farm Crops. The farmer grows grass, 
alfalfa, grains, cotton, fruits and other crops which he 
desires to convert into money. There are two ways of 
marketing tlie surplus feeds grown on the farm: (1) The 
crops may be sold to other persons to be fed to stock, 
or (2) they may be fed to animals on the farm where 
they are produced and worked up into a variety of 
products of less weight and bulk, as beef, pork, poultry, 
eggs, milk, horses, mules, cows, etc. These finished 
products may often be marketed for much more than 
could be secured for the feed alone. And, in addition, 
there will be retained on the farm much of the fertility, 
in the feeds for the benefit of succeeding crops. 

259. The Farm is a Factory where the plant and 
animal products are made from the crude substances 
of the air and soil. It is just as necessary to keep the 
soil able to sustain large yields as to keep the machinery 
in the mills in good working order. The wealth-pro- 
ducing power of the farm lies in the productiveness of 
the soils. It costs something every year to restore to 
the soil the power to make a large yield of wheat (see 
^111), but it costs more to grow wheat on land that 
averages only half crops during the life of a farmer. 

260. The Cost of Manufacture and the value of the 

(187) 



188 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 

feeds should be counted against the value of the prod- 
ucts. The value of a product is determined by its kind, 
the supply offered at a given time, and the demand. 

261. Animal Husbandry is the natural companion 
of crop farming. When the products of the fields and 
meadows are removed from the farm each year, there 
is a continual loss of fertility, which leads to certain 
poverty of the farm and farmer. When these are fed 
to the stock on the farm much of the fertility in the 
crops may be returned to the land. 

262. Stock Farming varies and distributes the farm- 
er's labor. It gives him opportunity to work every day 
in the year by which he may earn something for his 
family. An all-grain crop or hay crop, or cotton crop, 
etc., overtaxes the farm labor in one season and leaves 
it in comparative idleness the next. Stock farming en- 
courages system in rotation of crops, and thus tends 
to maintain the land in a high state of productiveness. 

263. In Selecting Animals for the Farm, the farmer 
should use just as good judgment as the manufacturer 
does in buying machinery, for the stock is the machinery 
that makes the crude products of the farm into salable 
products. The machines used in manufacturing have 
been greatly improved to cheapen production in special 
lines. What shall be the character of the machines which 
the farmer uses to convert his feeds into finished pro- 
ducts? Shall it be the latest improved, — by years of 
breeding and selecting, to secure a breed that will give 
a larger return of meat, butter, eggs, wool, etc., for 
each pound of feed supphed? 

264. Many Animals Are Unsuited for the purpose 
for which they are kept. The Illinois Agricultural 
Experiment Station made individual records for a full 



DAILY MILK AND PSED BECORD FOR MONTH 



Oil- Her of UeixL. 

KAME: 

EEKEl J : 

]>a.tOufti net u],' 

Silage nrsnl „ r i 












Cif^fr. &.-j(. ~hv^ ~ i -'/^ 









^^T7^^/^ 


i Xfl- Z^" 1 // /a 


^"TTT^Y^ 


3' ^' : 




31 1 /J^ /^ 


\ /6. /^\ /o 9 


/o /■' 


1 -^ ^ '■ \ 


Total, 


iy-y/ >r'i?/ 


j-rt ^i/\3srj 3J2'/ 


\iJi?j- ^/^ 


\ ^/ A^' : A 


1 rP * .w ^ 


! ^-/^ 


< '^i? \ ^7-.- 


v'^/'<'' 


i-./x;;.^^ ■■ 


, t ^ 


^ r» 


, ^.-^'/.f .^-f. 


-/f< 


^ 4/ 


i ) «i nu lb 


1 ^^Z). J'^ 


» ^3. ^7^' ^3 /£< 


J^. / (c 


/ 2 


,?^^/ 


^^ X ' ^-^;^ 


:?.^~/ 


! .^. ' \ 


1 


'^,:^ .',', 


^ ^ry^ f ,'./X/^ 


^ ^'■7f 


'.'^/■i- '■*■ 


\ ^ im ^j 1 


//f 


J?./^\ /^/ 


/. .y^,o 


\ -V ' 


1 1 


.' / v" 


' . ' -^^ , V 2 


7r 07\ 


\.U.9^i \A 


__Pr ur 


^// ;j' 








■ ....,,.^.....,.-..,. 






_ ■Ooitvfi: 


^luio p«r h(»a.i. _ 



Fig. 124. Record of five cows for one month. Is the profit above cost of feed 
sufficient to pay for care? Record furnished by Prof. C. O. Moser. 



190 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 

year of the butter produced by 554 cows in Illinois 
dairies. The average for the 139 poorest was 133.5 
pounds of butter-fat and for the 139 best, 301 pounds, 
or an average difference of 167.5 pounds butter-fat per 
year. At 25 cents per pound this is $41.87 per cow. 

264a. Figure the gross and net returns per year to the dairy- 
man for labor and interest on the investment for each of the above 
groups of cows. Allow $30 per year for the cost of feed for each 
cow, and 25 cents per pound for butter-fat. The cows were valued 
at $50 each. Were they all worth this much? 

265. Records of Individual Performance should be 
made of cows, hens, etc., to determine the cost of keep- 
ing and the returns of the farmer. By this means the 
profitable animals may be recognized, as also the unprofi- 
table ones. The latter should be discarded. The farmer 
ma}^, by attention to these matters, learn that some 
animals are being fed at a loss. 

265a. Milk and Butter Records. Secure records of the amount 
of milk, and amount of butter, from cows in the neighborhood for 
a single week. Calculate the value of the product at current prices. 
Count the amount and cost of the feed consumed. Determine the 
returns for labor, etc. (See Fig. 124 and 11352.) 

265b. Growth of Pigs. Weigh a weaned pig once a week for 
four weeks, and calculate the daily gain in weight. Allow for cost 
of feed and calculate the cost per pound gain. Market prices may 
be secured from the daily papers. 

265c. Record of Loretta D. (see Fig. 131), the champion ''best 
cow of any breed" for economical butter-production in the dairy 
test at the St. Louis Exposition in a 120-day test, average daily flow 
of milk was 48.35 pounds, containing 2.33 pounds of actual butter- 
fat (equal to 2.75 pounds of standard quality butter). The cost of 
her feed was twenty- five cents per day. Calculate the value of the 
milk and butter for ten months. 

265d. Record of Colantha 4th's Johnanna, (see Fig. 125), in a 
year test completed December 24, 1907, was 27,432 pounds milk, 
yielding 998 pounds of butter-fat. This is the world's record, both 



Animal Husbandry 



191 



for milk and butter, for any cow of any breed. What would be 
the value of her milk and butter at current prices? 

BREEDS OF LIVE-STOCK 

266. What Constitutes a Breed? Breed, as applied to 
live-stock, corresponds to variety in cultivated plants. 
The various breeds of poultry, cattle, horses, sheep, etc., 
descended from a common stock. The differences which 




Fig. 125. Colantha 4th's Johanna. 
Record of Colantha 4th' s Johanna. 



Days 



1 

7 

30 

60 

365 



Time 



Feb. 6, 1907 

Feb. 6 to 12 

Jan. 21 to Feb. 20 ... . 

Dec. 27 to Feb. 25 

Dec. 24, '06 to Dec, '07 



Milk 


Butter-fat 


Lbs. 


Per cent 


Total 


100.8 


3.96 


3.99 


651.7 


4.37 


28.17 


2,873.6 


3.86 


110.83 


5,326.7 


3.91 


208.39 


27,432.5 


"•■; 


998.25 



Estimated 
butter 



4.65 

32.86 

129.30 

243.12 

1,165.00 



192 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 

we recognize in the breeds are the result of continued 
selections. 

267. Origin of Breeds. Man long ago recognized 
differences in the ability of individual animals to con- 
vert their food into milk, wool, feathers, eggs, etc. 
Therefore we select animals, not so much for their 
ability to endure hardships, but for their power to pro- 
duce something in response to care. Continued selection 
has produced breeds of animals having certain charac- 
ters strongly developed. They are called ''special-pur- 
pose breeds." 



CHAPTER XXVIl 

TYPES AND BREEDS OF CATTLE 

268. The Beef Types are distinguished by their 
ability to lay on large amounts of flesh. Their bodies 
have a rounded form, with strong back and well-sprung 
ribs. They have full quarters, straight bottom and top 




uu 




Fig. 126. Outlines of shape of beef cow as compared with parallelograms. 

lines (see Fig. 127), and a tendency to develop flesh at 
an early age. Careful breeders prefer the animal that 
locates a large amount of its flesh where it is worth 
most, i. e., in regions supplying the valuable cuts of 
steak. (See Fig. 128.) Animals having these qualities 
so fixed by repeated selections that they regularly 
appear in the offspring, belong to the beef-breeds. 

269. The Shorthorn, like the Herefords, is an old 
English breed. The shorthorns adhere closely to the 







\N 



A K^ ^ 



Fig. 127. Outlines of shape of dairy cow as compared with parallelograms, 

(193) 



194 



Elementary Principles of Agriculture 



beef type, but many strains are good milkers, and are 
classed as ''general purpose" animals. They are of very 

large size, the 
cows often rang- 
ing from 1,400 
to 2,000 pounds. 
The horn is 
short, the hind- 
quarters are 
broad and well 
filled. A consid- 
erable range of 
color is allowed 
in the shorthorns — from light to dark red, or roan, the 
latter formed by a mixture of red and white hairs. The 
Polled Durhams are an offshoot of the Shorthorns. (Fig. 
129.J The Shorthorn is one of the most popular of beef 
breeds. During the course of its development three 



■>^^, 




Fig. 128. Chicago retail dealers' method of 
cutting beef 





Fig. 129. A prize- win 1 



Kun> wi liuttonwood 



Types and Breeds of Cattle 195 

types have come to be recognized— the Bates, Booth, 
and Crookshanks, or Scotch Shorthorns. The former 
two are Enghsh in origin and differ from each other in 
the following characters: The Bates cattle have been 
bred for beauty and symmetry, style and milking quali- 
ties, while the Booth strain constitution, wide thick- 
fleshed backs and length of quarters have been empha- 




Fig. 130. A typical Aberdeen Angus. 

sized. The Crookshanks, or Scotch strain, are low, have 
block forms with large scale, heavy coats of hair, and 
mature quite early. * 

270. The Herefords take their name from the county 
of Hereford, England, where the breed originated. They 
are typically a beef breed, hardy, early maturing, and 
well suited to range conditions. In milk-production 
they are very poor. The red body color and white face 
are well-fixed marks for the breed. (See Fig. 123.) 



196 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 

271. Aberdeen-Angus derive their name from two 
counties of northern Scotland. They are polled or 
hornless and noted for their fine beef qualities. Their 
place as a range breed is not yet established, though 
as feeders they have many friends. The body is very 
compact and more cylindrical than that of either Here- 
fords or Shorthorns. The legs are short and heavy. Color 
is nearly always black. They are classed as medium 
milkers among beef breeds. (Fig. 130.) 

272. Dairy Types are noted for their ability to pro- 
duce large quantities of milk and butter, instead of flesh. 
They are noticeable for their long, deep couplings, 
triple wedge-shaped outlines, due to their clean-cut 
shoulders and broad, deep hind-quarters, clean-cut limbs, 
slender necks and sharp withers. They also have a full 
barrel, indicating strong constitution, and well-developed 
digestive systems, well-developed udders, and a capacity 
to yield a quantity of milk and butter on moderate feed. 
The important dairy breeds are the Jerseys, Guernseys, 
Holstein-Friesian. Ayshires and Dutch Belted. 

273. The Jerseys and the Guernseys are natives of 
the islands of these names in the English Channel. 
The typical color for the Jersey breed is described as 
fawn, gray, and silvery fawn. White marks are not 
infrequent. The tongues and switch of the tail are typi- 
cally black in pure-bred Jerseys. In conformation, the 
Jersey adheres strictly to the dairy-type characteristics. 
The weight of the cows averages between 650 and 850 
pounds. Their milk is noted for its richness in butter-fat, 
a fair average being close to 4.5 per cent fat in the milk. 
As a beef producer, the Jersey is very poor. A number 
of famous Jerseys have records ranging from 700 to 
1,000 pounds of butter in a single year. 



Types and Breeds oj Cattle 



197 




Fig. 131. Horetta D. 

Official Milk, Fat and Butter Yields 





From 


Milk 


Fat 


Estim'd butter* 


Days 


Total 


Daily 
average 


Total 


Daily 
average 


Total 


Daily 
average 


120 
30 

7 
1 


June 16-Oct. 13. . . 
Aug. 28-Sept. 26 . . 
Sept. 17-Sept. 23 . . 
Aug 13 


Lbs. 
5,802.7 
1,442.8 
335.2 
50.65 


Lbs. 
48.35 
48.09 
47.90 


Lbs. 

280.16 

73.68 

17.67 

3.13 


Lbs. 

2.33 
2.45 
2.52 


Lbs. 

330.03 

86.94 

20.85 

3.71 


Lbs. 
2.75 
2.90 

2.98 









274. The Holstein-Friesian, or simply Friesian, as 
they are called in their native country, Holland, is a 
splendid dairy type with large frame. The color is black 

* In calculating the amount of commercial butter, add one-sixth to the net 
butter-fat, to allow for the moisture in the butter. 



198 



Elementary Principles of Agriculture 



Points and Measurements to Be Observed in- Judging Cattle 



9, 
10. 
11, 
12, 
13, 
14. 
15. 
16. 
17. 

18. 
19. 

20. 
21. 
22. 
23. 
24. 
25. 

26. 

27. 

28. 



29. 
30. 
31. 

32. 



Mouth. 

Lips. 

Nostrils. 

Muzzle. 

Face, from muzzle to poll. 

Forehead, from eves to 
poll. 

Eye. 

Cheek, side of head below 

Jaw. [eye. 

Throat. 

Brains. 

Ear. 

Poll, top of head. 

Horns. 

Neck. 

Neck, lateral view. 

Breast or bosom, front of 
chest. 

Fore flank, rear of arm. 

Dewlap, loose skin, under- 
neath the throat. 

Brisket, point of chest. 

Withers, top of shoulders. 

Shoulder point. 

Neck or collar depression in 

Elbow. [front. 

Chest cavity inclosing vital 
organs. 

Arm, portion of leg between 
shoulder and knee. 

Knee. 

Cannon or shank-bone, be- 
tween knee and ankle in 
fore- or hind-leg. 

Hoof. 

Spinal column, backbone. 

Barrel or coupling, middle- 
piece. 

Loin, muscle covering the 
short ribs. 



33. Hooks or hips. 

34. Crops, depression behind 

shoulder. 

35. Fore-ribs. 

36. Girth at flank. 

37. Girth at heart. 

38. Chine, between withers and 

loin. 

39. False or floating ribs. 

40. Belly. 

41. Milk-veins, branched and 

tortuous ducts running 
forward beneath the 
barrel. 

42. Orifices through which the 

milk veins enter the ab- 
dominal walls. 

43. Midribs. 

44. Abdominal depth, indicat- 

ing digestion and consti- 
tution. 

45. Tail head. 

46. Pin bones. 

47. Escutcheon, covered with 

fine hairs. 

48. Buttocks. ' 

49. Twist where hair turns on 

thigh. 

50. Gaskin or lower thigh. 

51. Brush. 

52. Thigh. 

53. Stifle. 

54. Flank. 

55. Udder. - 

56. Teats. 

57. Hock. 

58. Navel or umbilicus. 

60. Pelvic arch or sacrum, the 
arch bone between the loin 
and crupper. 



Measurements 



Width of forehead. 
Width of neck. 
Width of breast. 
Length from pin 
shoulder point. 



bones to 



E. Height at withers and hooks. 

F. Girth at flank and navel. 

G. Length of barrel depression. 
H. Width of hooks. 

K. Length of hind-quarters. 



>-5^- 



37 



_^...<ir7^ 



' 38 -^^ \ ^-^-^ 




Fig, 132. Points and measurements to be observed in judging cattle. 



200 



Elementary Principles of Agriculture 



and white, sometimes the white, sometimes the black, 
prevailing. In quantity of milk this breed excels all 
others. Colantha 4th's Johanna (Fig. 125) is credited 
with 27,432.5 pounds of milk in twelve months, which 
is the world's record. A good cow is expected to pro- 
duce from 7,000 to 9,000 pounds of milk in a year. 
A cow that does not produce 4,000 or 5,000 pounds 
of milk a year is likely to be unprofitable. While the 




Fig. 133. 



'She is broad on top." Courtesy of Department of Agricultural 
Extension, University of Ohio. 



milk from Friesian cows is not so rich as that afforded 
by the Jerseys and the Guernseys, the total butter-fat 
is equally great. 

275. Dual-purpose Breeds are intermediate between 
the beef and dairy types. The cows afford considerably 
more milk than the calves can use, and the body form 
is such that they dress out a good quality of beef. 
The breeds most usually classed as dual-purpose ani- 



Types and Breeds of Cattle 201 

mals are Red Polls, Brown Swiss, Shorthorn and 
Ayeshires. 

276. Judging Cattle. To become a good judge of 
stock one should study to find out the form and habits 
that represent useful qualities. The diagram in Fig. 000 
should be closely studied, with two or three animals at 
hand for comparison, in training the judgment on the 
useful points. 



CHAPTER XXVIII 

TYPES AND, BREEDS OF HORSES 

277. Prehistoric Horses. The skeletons of horses 
existing in prehistoric times, ages and ages ago, are 
found in western North America, from Texas to British 
Columbia, also in England and France. Some of these 
early horses had toes. The little horny thickenings of 




lis 134. Prehistoric horses. To show increase in size A and B, Early forms; 
C, a later and larger form, about four and one-half hands high; D, the 
"forest horse." Drawings constructed from a study of the geologic 
remains, by Professor Osborne- 

(202) 



Tj/pcs and Breed "< of Horses 



203 




Fig. 135. Trotting stallion, Carmon, 32,917. The first sire selected for use in 
the experiments of the Department of Agriculture to develop an American 
breed of carriage horses. 

the skin just above the knee of the front legs (chestnuts) 
and below the fetlock of the hind legs (ergots) are marks 
of the toes that were in the feet of the prehistoric 
horses. The horses which we have now are thought to 
have descended from the Old World stocks. (Fig. 134.) 

278. Valuable Qualities in Horses. The horse is 
invaluable on the farm or in the city. He is stout, quick, 
intelligent, and more faithful than any other animal 
used for bearing burdens. Horses and mules are neces- 
sary for heavy hauling and plowing. Other forms of 
power are cheaper or more desirable in many cases, but 
there will alwavs be work for the horse. 



204 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 

279. "^Horses Should Be Selected for the work they 
are to do. Different kinds of work require different 
kinds of horses. A horse is of no particular value except 
for what he can do. To fulfil his mission he must travel. 
If he can draw a buggy containing one or two persons 
at the rate of ten miles an hour, he is valuable as a road- 
ster. Another horse that can draw his share of a load 
weighing upwards of a ton, even though he moves 
slowly, performs an equal amount of actual work, and 
is just as useful to his owner as is the roadster. Since all 
horses are valuable because they travel, although at 
various rates and under widely varying conditions, 
it will be interesting to make a study of those parts 
of the horse's body directly connected with his loco- 
motion. 

280. Use of the Muscles. It is not difficult to under- 
stand that, with the horse as with ourselves, all motion 
is the result of the action of the muscles. About 40 per 
cent of the weight of an ordinary horse is muscle. All 
muscles concerned with locomotion are attached to 
bones, and when they contract they cause the bones to 
which they are fastened to move. The lower part of 
a horse's legs are nearly all bone, but the muscles in 
the body and upper part of the limbs are attached to 
various parts of the bony construction by tendons, 
and can thus produce a motion of the parts located 
some distance away. When contracted, the muscles 
we are discussing are about three-quarters as long as 
when at rest. The amount of motion produced by the 
action of the muscles of, say one of the horse's legs, 
will depend upon the length of the muscles and the 

* Paragraphs 279 to 285 are taken by permission from a leaflet on "The 
Horse," by Prof. F. R. Marshall, published by the Ohio State University. 




Front view of front legs. A shows correct conformation; B to G, 
common defects. 




Side view of front legs. A shows correct conformation; B, foot too 
far back; C, too far forward; D, knee-sprung; E, knock-kneed. 



-...~^ 


ii'- ,■ 


'^}\ 




\{m 


A \\ 


, ,1 


y '' 


f 




n 



'\ 



■/ 



^ 







f 



Side view of hind legs. A shows correct conformation; 
B to D, common defects. 




Rear view of hind legs. A shows correct conformation; 
B to E, common defects. 

Fig. 136. Proper and improper positions of horses' legs, while standing. 



206 Elementarij Principles of Agriculture 

length and the relation of the bones to which they are 
attached. The common idea among students of this 
subject is expressed in these words, ^'Long muscles for 
speed, short muscles for power." We have already seen 
that a long muscle enables a horse to get over ground 
rapidly. A short muscle, however, is not pow^erful 
because it is short, but because in horses constructed 
on that plan the muscles are thicker, containing more 
fibers, all of which pulling together when contracted 
exert a much greater pulling force than will a long, and 
more slender muscle. It is because of this that in buying 
horses to draw heavy loads we look for large and heavy 
muscles, while in roadsters we must attach importance 
to the length of the muscles. 

281. Muscles of the Hind-quarters. The most of 
a horse's muscle is in the hind-quarters. This may be 
a surprise to you, but the next time you have an oppor- 
tunity to see a horse pulling a ver}" heavy load, study 
him carefully. You will be impressed with the idea 
that most of the work is being done with the hind legs. 
When the hind foot is moved forward the toe rests 
on the ground, and the leg is bent at the hock joint; 
if the toe does not slip, and the horse is strong enough 
for his load, the muscles above, pulling on the tendon 
fastened to the back and upper point of the hock, will 
close the joint, or, in other words, straighten the legs, 
and cause the body to move forward. It is by the per- 
formance of this act at every step that the horse moves, 
although, of course, the strain on all the parts is much 
greater when pulling very hard. This will also show the 
necessity of having large, broad, straight joints, and 
legs that give the horse the most secure footing. You 
have probably also noticed when driving that many 



Types and Breeds of Horses 207 

horses put their hind foot on the ground in front of the 
mark left by the fore foot, and the faster they go the 
greater will be the distance between the marks made 
by the fore and the hind feet. This shows that the 
length of a step is determined by the hind- quarters; 
it also explains the need of large, strong hocks, and legs 
that are not so crooked as to seem weak, or so straight 
as to lessen the leverage afforded by this very wonder- 
ful arrangement of the parts. 

282. Body Form. Then there are some other things 
that are desired in all kinds of horses. One of these is 
a short back, that is, short from the hips to the top of 
the shoulders (the withers) . From what we have learned 
of the hind parts we know that the horse is really push- 
ing the rest of his body along. If the back is short and 
strong, instead of long and weak, the w4iole body will 
move more easily and rapidly in obedience to the force 
produced in the hind parts. 

283. The Fore-legs. Although the hind parts have 
most to do with the horse's traveling, we must not forget 
that the front parts are also very important. No matter 
how much muscle a horse has, or how strong his hocks 
are, if there is anything seriously wrong with his fronj^ 
legs, he cannot travel, and so derives no benefit from his 
good parts. Some horses may be seen whose knees are 
not straight, others, when looked at from in front, show 
that their feet are not in line with their legs. Such 
animals are more likely to strike one leg with the oppo- 
site foot, thus making themselves lame and unable to 
do any work. 

284. Horses* Feet. There are a great many interest- 
ing things about a horse which cannot be told here, 
but which you may learn at home, or from some neighbor 



208 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 

who keeps good horses. We will, however, say some- 
thing about horses' feet. Inside a horse's hoof there 
are some very sensitive parts, resembUng the attach- 
ment of the finger-nail to the finger. When anything 
gets wrong with the foot, these parts cause a great deal 
of pain, and even though the horse is otherwise perfect, 
the pain in his feet makes him too lame to travel. 
Horses with large, wide feet, that are wide across where 
they touch the ground when you look at them from 
behind (or in the heels), are not likely to have this 
trouble. 

285. Style in Horses. Even though you have never 
studied horses, you have seen some that impress you 
as being more beautiful than others. No matter what 
kind of work is to be done, it is desirable to have a horse 
that looks well. Of course, it will depend upon whether 
the horse is thin or fat, and upon the grooming he has 
had, but you will usually find that the horses which 
attract you have rather long necks that rise upward 
from where they leave the body; the head, too, instead 
of being set on straight up and down, will have the nose 
pointed a little forward; the ears will be rather close 
together, and the eyes larger and bright-looking. 

286. The Draft Type is becoming more popular wher- 
ever horses are used. They are better suited to farm 
work and the heavy hauling of large cities. Good draft 
horses have large size, blocky build, short legs, broad 
backs and quiet tempers. Percherons, Clydesdales, 
English shires and Belgians are leading representative 
breeds of the draft type. 

287. The Percheron is now the most popular draft 
breed in America. They are docile, intelUgent, active, 
and have excellent feet; are heavy in weight, and 



Types and Breeds of Horses 



209 



steady pullers under load. Typical specimens of this 
breed run from fifteen to sixteen hands high. The color 
is generally gray, though blacks are often met. 




Fig. 137. Percheron, Medoc, 30,986. First in class at Iowa, Minnesota, and 
Wisconsin State Fairs, 1903 ; also one first and one second at Chicago 
International, 1903. 

288. The Clydesdale is the recognized draft breed 
of Scotland, taking their name from the river Clyde. 
Usually they have smaller bodies and longer legs than 
the Percherons, which is supposed to allow more action. 

289. Coach Types are sometimes referred to as 
heavy harness horses. The most popular breeds are the 



210 



Elementary Principles of Agriculture 



Hackney, or English Coach, Cleveland Bays, French 
Coach and German Coach. 

290. Saddle and Driving Horses are very popular 
because of their quick action. There are several strains 




Fig. 137. Clydesdale i.i-.., J - Handsome. Winner of first prize three 

years in succession at Chicago International Live-stock Show. 

of driving horses, all derived in part from the Arabian 
horses. As a result of superior breeding, the English 
thoroughbred and the American trotting horses have 
come to be better movers than the original Arabian 
stocks. There are several strains of the American trot- 
ting horses, such as the Hambeltonian, the Wilkes and 
the Morgans. The native ^'Mustangs," found in western 



Types and Breeds of Horses 



211 



America by the early explorers, are supposed to be the 
descendants of early importations made during the 
Spanish conquest of Mexico. 




Fig. 139. 



Lord Burleigh. Oi 
"■■show horses 



291. Ponies. Besides the ponies owned by the Indians 
of America, the little Shetland island horses are called 
ponies. These ''Shetlands" are small because they have 
been forced to live on the coarse and scant grasses 
of the cold regions of north Scotland. 



2i: 



Elementary Principles of Agriculture 



292. Judging Horses. Fig. 136 illustrates the proper 
and improper position of the legs of horses. In study- 
ing horses this should always be closely observed. Get 
two horses together and closely contrast the various 
points. Fig. 140 gives the names in common use for 
the various parts of a horse. 




Fig. 140. Typical horse, showing names of the points, 



Muzzle. 

Nostril. 
Forehead. 
Cheek. 
Temple. 

Poll or nape of neck. 
7'. Crest. 
Neck. 
Withers. 
Shoulder. 
Point of shoulder. 
Slant of shoulder. 
Breast. 



14. Elbow. 

15. Fore-arm. 

16. Knee. 

17-17'. Cannon bone. 
18-18'. Fetlock. 
19-19'. Pastern. 
20-20'. Coronet. 
21. Hoof. 

Chestnut. 

Ergot. 

Splints. 

Back. 

Loins. 



22. 
23. 
24. 



27. Chest. 

28. Flank. 

29. Belly. 

30. Back. 

31. Tail. 

32. Croup. 

33. Buttock. 

34. Thigh. 

35. Stifle joint. 

36. Gaskin. 

37. Hock. 

38. Point of hock. 



26. 



Types and Breeds of Horses 213 

293. Care of Horses. Horses are intelligent and 
nervous animals,, and should be handled with impas- 
sive judgment. Your treatment should convince 
him that you are his friend, as well as his master. If 
a horse shies, or becomes frightened, soothe and encour- 
age him. You cannot whip terror out of a horse, nor 
courage into one. Before you check a horse's head into 
an unnatural position try it on yourself. Read "Black 
Beauty," and the story of the Bell of Justice in Long- 
fellow's poem, "The Bell of Atri." 



CHAPTER XXIX 
TYPES AND BREEDS OF HOGS 

294. Some Hogs Should Be on Every Farm. Hog flesh 
may be produced more cheaply than other kinds. 
There is very httle waste in a hog carcass, because they are 
built so compactly. Hogs "dress out" seventy or eighty- 
five pounds of palatable products per hundred pounds 
live weight, varying according to the condition and 
kind of animal. With hogs, meat-producing quality 
is the valuable feature in all breeds. We consider not 
only the gross weight, but the form that will dress out 
the greatest per cent of high-priced cuts, and a small 
per cent of waste. 

295. Food of Hogs. The hog will eat many kinds of 
slops and waste products that no other animal will. A 
range or pasture, clean, roomy pens, and some grain 
feed, with shelter for hot or extreme cold weather, are 
necessary to keep hogs healthy and growing. Some pas- 
ture should always be provided for hogs in winter 




Fig. 141. Comparative values of the dififerent cuts as used by the retail 
butchers of Chicago. 

(214) 



Types and Breeds of Hogs 215 

and summer. Oats, rye and wheat make good winter 
pasturage. 

296. Lard Hogs. The hogs with large, spreading 
hams and shoulders, short bodies and broad backs, 
thick neck and jowls, with deep layers that contain a 
large amount of lard-bearing tissue as compared with 
the lean cuts, are called lard hogs. The Poland-Chinas, 
Berkshire, Duroc-Jerseys and Chester- Whites belong 
to this class. 

297. Bacon Hogs are long in body, deep in sides, 
with comparatively narrow back, narrow, light hams 




Fig. 142. Three representative Duroc-Jerseys. 

and shoulders, and hght, muscular neck. Theyjlack 
the deep layers of fatty tissue found in the lard hogs. 
They have a strong muscular development, and hence 
dress out a large per cent of lean meat. Bacon hogs 
furnish a large per cent of the expensive cuts, such as 
choice hams and breakfast bacons. The Yorkshires and 
Tamworths are the leading breeds belonging to this 
class. 

298. Duroc- Jersey. The Duroc-Jersey breed has prob- 
ably descended from several strains of red hogs. The 
hair is coarse, and ears lapped forward. The back is 



216 



Elementary Principles of Agriculture 




Fig. 143 



representative Poland-Uhinas . 



short, slightly arched, and supports a broad, well- 
rounded body. The shoulders and hams are very heavy 
and thick-fleshed. Duroc-Jerseys are splendid feeders 
and good grazers and are justly popular in all sections. 
299. The Poland-China breed is a native of Ohio. 
The color is black, with white points on feet and head. 
The ears are lapped, jowls are large, and the back has 
a gradual yet moderate arch the entire length. The 
body is shorter, but more spreading than in the Berk- 
shire. As a rule, the sides and hams contain a smaller 
per cent of lean meat than the Berkshires. The pigs 
of this breed mature early, and as feeders under confine- 
ment, are rated among the best, and are especially liked 




44, riiroe rei)it"soiJt 



Types and Breeds of Hogs 217 

in the corn-belt states. They are typically represen- 
tative of the lard-hog tj^pe. 

300. Berkshires take their names from a shire or 
county of England. Berkshires have erect ears, a black 
bod}^, generally with a white streak in the face or jowl, 
and four white feet. The back of the Berkshires is nearly 
straight, with moderate breadth. The barrel is long, 
with slightly arched ribs and deep sides. They are strong 
and active and are good grazers. The Berkshire is a 
good feeder and affords a good quantity of bacon. 



p^r 


i 




Im^^g, 




^■e 


P^ 


^ ' - -^ 






w 




lip 


h 


^^^^1 


1 

■S' ' : 


K 




* 


1 


-: 



Fig. 145. Three representative Tam worths. 

301. Tamworth. The native home of the Tamworth 
breed is in the counties of central England. They are 
typical of the bacon type of hog, so popular in some sec- 
tions of England and Canada. With the increasing high 
prices for fancy bacon, they are becoming more widely 
recognized than ever before. The color is red. The back 
is long, while the sides are moderately deep and contain 
a large amount of ''streak-o'-lean" bacon. The hams 
and shoulders are without the large amount of external 
fat, so noticeably present in Poland-Chinas and Duroc- 
Jerseys. 



CHAPTER XXX 
TYPES AND BREEDS OF SHEEP AND GOATS 

302. Uses. Sheep and goats are valued for wool and 
mutton. In some countries goats are kept not only 
for mutton and hair, but to supply milk. Sheep and 
goats are great grazers. They will make more out of a 
pasture than any other class of animal, consuming 
not only the grass, but also many of the weeds and leaves 
of shrubs. Sheep are grown in large herds in the west- 
ern states, primarily for wool. In recent years many 
farmers in the South have found small flocks of sheep 
or goats valuable additions to the stock of their farms. 

303. The Wool produced by the different breeds 
differs much in quantity, quality and character. In 
some strains of the Merinos the clip of wool may equal 
one-fourth or even one-third of the animal's gross weight. 
The wool is much less in the mutton breeds. The breeds 




Fig. 146. Merino sheep. Champion flock at St. Louis Fair, Illinois State Fair, 
and Charleston, S. C, Exposition, 1902. 

(218) 



Types and Breeds of Sheep and Goats 219 

are usually divided into three classes, according to the 
length of the wool. The long-wooled breeds are repre- 
sented by the Lincoln, Leicester and Cotswold, while 




Fig. 147. Grand champion car-load of mutton sheep. Chicago Internationa. 
Exposition, 1901. 

the short-wooled class includes'^the Southdown, Shrop- 
shire and Cheviot. The fine-wooled breeds are repre- 
sented by the Rambouillet or French Merino, and 
Delaines or Spanish Merino. The fineness, as well as 
length of staple, is an important quality in wools. 
Dense fleeces, referring to the number of fibers per 
square inch, are desired by both the manufacturers 
and the sheep breeders. The dense fleeces afford more 
protection to the body, and deteriorate less from expos- 
ure to the rain, cold and dirt than the thin fleeces. 

304. The Merino Breeds have descended from old 
Spanish stocks. They represent the highest type of 
wool producer. The fleece is fine, dense on the body, 
and uniform in length. The oil, or yolk, on the fleece 
causes the wool to catch a great deal of dirt on the outer 
layers, giving the animal a dark color. The Merinos 
are hardy, healthy and excellent foragers. They thrive 
even when the range is poor. 



220 



Elementary Principles of Agriculture 



305. Mutton Breeds. The mutton qualities in sheep 
correspond to the same set of characters associated with 
the beef breeds of cattle. (See H -^1-) Sheep dress out from 
50 to 60 per cent of their live weight in marketable prod- 




n^m 



Fig. 148. A famous Angora goat. 

nets. The leg, rib and loin cuts include nearly three- 
fourths of the total weight, and over 90 per cent of the 
value. Thus it is plain that a good mutton sheep means 
one with a blocky form, full, heavy legs, deep body, level, 
broad' back, and short head and neck. 

306. Goats. Goats are natural browsers, and not 



Types and Breeds of Sheep and Goats 221 

grazers. They prefer the slender tips and twigs of young 
trees to grass, and on this account are often used to 
keep down the underbush in pastures. In the Southwest 
they find a cUmate well suited to their habits. The fibers 
of the fleece are very long and some coarser than fine 
wool. The fleece of the Angora goats is known as mohair. 
Milking breeds of goats have been highly developed in 
some countries. In the island of Malta the inhabitants 
depend very largely on goats for supplies of milk and 
butter. Milking-goats have been bred for centuries 
in Switzerland. Fine specimens give from four to seven 
quarts of milk a day. 



CHAPTER XXXI 
FARM POULTRY 

307. Poultry Should be Raised at Every Home. Only 
a small outlay of capital is required to establish a pay- 
ing poultry business. The natural food of nearly all 
members of the bird family is largely insects, small 
animals and fish. The eggs of all sorts of poultry from 
a rich, nutritious food. Ducks and geese produce a fine 
quality of feathers as well as food. 

308. Hatching and Rearing Poultry. The growth of 
the germ in the egg begins at a temperature just a little 
below that of the bird's body. The temperature of the 
blood in chickens ife given as 107.6° Fahr. or 42° C. In 
the brooding season the small blood-vessels on the 
breast of the chicken become more prominent. The 
time required to hatch, called the period of incubation. 
will vary with the freshness of the eggs and the kind 
of birds. The period of incubation for several kinds of 
birds is as fol ows: 

Canary bird 14 days 

Pigeon 18 days 

Chicken 21 days 

Guinea 25 days 

Duck, geese and peacock 28 days 

Turkey 28 days 

309. Artificial Incubation. Artificial incubation is 
a very old practice in some countries. Incubators 
have become common in recent years wherever much 

(222) 



Farm Poultry 



223 



attention is given to the raising of poultry. It costs a 
great deal less to hatch, say, one hundred eggs artifici- 
ally than it does to feed seven or eight hens. The addi- 
tional advantage claimed for the incubator is that the 




Fig. 149. A modern incubator. 



hens soon begin laying, and that the chickens can l^.e more 
easily cared for in brooders. There are two classes of 
incubators on the market, — the water -heated and the 
dry-heated. (Fig. 149.) 

310. Poultry-Houses and Grounds. Poultry -houses 
and yards should be located on well-drained, and, pref- 
erably, on loose, sandy soils. They should be cleaned 
regularly to prevent the accumulation of filth that 



224 



Elementarii Principles of Agriculture 



might harbor disease-producing germs and parasites. 
The Utter in the nests should be changed often. A dust 
box should be in every poultry-yard. The poultry-house 
may be simple in our cUmate, providing only a good 
coop, with the north and west sides closed, leaving 
the south wall partly open. The perches and nests 
should not be very high. (Fig. 150.) 



- ? f ,JijJM^, 






I^^^^H^ . ^ ^drr* ^ ^ i^^^^^H 




^^HlKi^Kw'! H^^H 






Ri^iii 


I^HI^H 



Fig. 150. A simple poultry house. 

311. Feeding Poultry. The natural food of all domes- 
ticated fowls, and, in fact, nearly all birds, consists of 
insects, seeds and grasses. They require plenty of 
nitrogenous feeds, like insects, meat scraps, etc. For 
confined fowls, cottonseed meal, milk, or the tankage 
from the slaughter-house, make an excellent substitute 
for the animal feeds. Any of the grains may be fed to 
poultry. Green feed is very desirable for laying hens. 
All birds require grit to assist in the grinding of the feed 
in the gizzard. Coarse, sharp sand, crushed stone, or 



Farm Poultry 



225 



cinders, etc., are desirable forms of grit. Crushed oyster- 
shells, or bones, supply the material for making the 
bones in young growing chickens and the egg-shells for 
laying hens. 

312. Improving Poultry. To improve a breed or 
flock of poultry, use the eggs from the individuals hav- 
ing the desired characters. In breeding for increased 
egg-production, the number of eggs laid by a hen in 
a year is of far more importance than the color of the 
feathers. A hen lay- 
ing 200 or more eggs 
a year is worth many 
times more than one 
laying from 30 to 50. 
There are many poor 
layers in all flocks. 
By using trap-nests 
for a full -year test 
the Maine Experiment 
Station found that in a number of spring pullets all bred 
pure to type, only 3 laid more than 200 eggs; 10 laid 
175 to 200; 11 laid 150 to 174, and so on down; 11 laid 
75 to 100; 6 laid 50 to 75, and 5 laid 36 to 49. 

313. Preserving Eggs. Eggs decay as the result of 
the growth of germs in the rich substances of the egg. 
Warm temperatures favor the rapid development of 
the germs, hence eggs decay much faster in the summer. 
Just how the germ makes its entrance through the shell 
is not fully understood. Of the many kinds of egg-pre- 
servatives, none are so satisfactory as sodium silicate, 
commonly called ''water-glass." The eggs may be packed 
away in a solution of about one part of water-glass to 
twelve parts of clean boiled water and kept as long 




Fig. 151. A home-made trap nest. 



226 



Elementary Principles of Agriculture 



as desired. A mixture of salty lime-water is often used. 
In either case, the egg-shell should be punctured with 
a needle before boiling to prevent the shells cracking 
when placed in hot water. 

314. Classes of Poultry. There are many classes and 
breeds of poultry, such as chickens, turkeys, ducks, 




Fig. 152. White Leghorns — popular representatives of the egg-laying, 
or Mediterranean class. 

geese, guineas, pigeons and peacocks. Some are raised 
largely for eggs, others for meat or feathers, and others 
still to satisfy a fancy. There are two well-marked 
types of chickens, — the laying type and the meat' type. 
A'combination of the two gives the general-purpose type. 



Farm Poultry 



227 



315. Egg Breeds. The so-called egg breeds are natives 
of countries bordering the Mediterranean sea. They 
are of medium size, good layers, but often poor sitters 
when young. They are easily frightened, very hardy, 
active and make good foragers. The most popular rep- 
resentatives of this class are the Leghorns, Minorcas and 
Hamburgs. 

316. The Meat 
Breeds are na- 
tives of Asia, 
hence are some- 
times called the 
Asiatic breeds. 
They are large, 
heavy bodied, 
slow m o v i n g , 
having a gentle 
disposition, and 
are persistent 
sitters and good 
mothers. They 
are generally 
considered poor 
layers, though 
the pullets are 
often excellent 
layers. They are especially desirable because of the 
large size of the '"broilers" and '"friers." The best- 
known representatives are Brahmas, Cochins, Langshans 
and Faveroller, the latter a French breed. 

317. The General-purpose Breeds, such as the Ptym- 
outh Rocks, Wyandottes and Dorkings, are usually 
of fair size, furnish meat of good quality, and will pro- 




Fig. 153. 



A Light Brahma cockerel. Typical repre- 
sentative of the Asiatic class. 



228 



Elementary Principles of Agriculture 



duce a liberal quantit}^ of eggs under favorable condi- 
tions. It has never been found possible to completely 
combine into a sinijle animal the milk and butter-fat 




X Jj;. i,'>-i. ijai ifu i IS iiiiMUu iviii K->. i Li\ i)nie> ( >t t llf llork iia \ lug 

tlieir pictures " took." 

qualities of the dairy types of cattle with the meat- 
forming qualities of the beef breeds. The same body 
cannot be made to do both kinds of work to the same 
degree of perfection. So in poultry, we may blend, but 
cannot combine the egg- and meat-producing qualities. 
In selecting a breed, one should first decide what class 
of chickens will give the greatest return under the 
conditions, — a special-purpose egg or meat breed, or a 
blend of qualities. The general -purpose breeds have 
good egg-producing power, and produce good-sized friers 
and broilers. They are often used for mothers for the 
egg breeds. (Fig. 158.) 

318. Other Classes of Poultry. On many farms 
ducks and geese are raised for meat and feathers. There 
are great differences in the adaptability of the breeds. 



Farm Poidtrj/ 



229 



Ponds of watei' are not essential for success with this 
class of poultry. The food should be given to these birds 
in a soaked or softened condition, because their crops 
are less perfectly developed than in chickens, hence do 
not thrive so well on hard grains. 

319. Turkeys are native to North America. While 
they have lost much of their shyness and roving dispo- 
sition by long association w^ith man, they still must 
have the run of a large place for best success. The 
Bronze, White Holland and Black Norfolk are the most 
popular strains. 

320. The Care of Young Poultry. Freshly hatched 




230 



Ehmejitary Principles of Agriculture 




Fig. 156. An effective method of confining a "cluclv" and her 




Fig. 157. Names of the points con- 
sidered in describing chickens. 1, 
comb; 2, face; 3, wattles; 4, ear- 
lobes; 5, hackle; 6, breast; 7, back; 
8, saddle; 9, saddle-feathers; 10, 
sickles; 11, tail -coverts; 12, main 
tail feathers; 13, wing-bow; 14, wing 
coverts forming wing-bar; 15, sec- 
ondaries, wing-Tjay; 16, primaries or 
flight-feathers, wing-butts; 17, point 
of breast bone; 18, thighs; 19, hocks; 
20, shanks or legs; 21, spur; 22, toes 
or claws. 



fowls of all classes are 
quite delicate and there- 
fore call for special atten- 
tion. It is important that 
they be kept warm and 
dry until the feathers are 
fairly well developed. Un- 
less the mothers are con- 
fined at night, they will 
most likely lead the 
young chickens into the 
wet, dewy grass in the 
early morning hours. 
Nothing is so important 
as warm, dry coops and 
regular feeding in rear- 
ing young chickens, tur- 
keys, ducks or geese. The 



Farin Poidtru 231 

feed should be specially prepared and offered five to 
seven times during the day. No feed is needed for the 
first day or two. The first food should be such as ma}' 
be digested without grit, such as ground grain or stale 
bread just well moistened in skim-milk. It makes little 
difference whether the milk is fresh or sour. They 
should be given no more feed than they will clean up 




Fig, 15S. The Plymouth Rocks are often used for 
mothers for Leghorns. 

promptly. The feed supplies to young chickens, and older 
ones as well, should contain ground bone or other form 
of mineral matter. It is not so important that they have 
animal food, as plenty of mineral matter and protein. 
The latter may be of either vegetable or animal origin. 
Investigations for the cause of death among young 
poultry showed that 15 per cent had tuberculosis, due 
no doubt to imperfect sanitation; 38 per cent had in- 
testinal troubles, and 75 per cent had diseased livers, 



232 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 

influenced no doubt by unbalanced rations. (H 335). 
Shelter, feeding and exercise are points to be closely 
studied. 

321. Judging Poultry. Fig. 157 shows the names 
of the more obvious points in chickens. 



CHAPTER XXXII 
NUTRITION OF THE ANIMAL BODY 

322. Nutrition of the Animal Body. The nutrition 
of the body of the farm animals is through the same 
processes which have heen previously described for 
the human body in the study of physiology. The feeds 
are taken in by the tongue and lips, masticated by the 
teeth, and digested in the stomach and intestinal canal. 

323. Nutritive Substances. Animals require the same 
classes of nutritive substances to provide for the growth, 
repair and waste as in the human body. The sub- 
stances which are taken into the digestive tract are 
not available for the nourishment of the body until they 
have been rendered soluble, absorbed and become a part 
of the blood. The various cells of the body absorb the 
sugars, proteids, and salts directly from the blood. These 
substances are absorbed through the cell -walls, just 
as the yeast absorbs the sugar and albumen from the 
solution used in our early experiments. 

324. Digestive Tract of Domestic Animals. There 
are important differences in the digestive tracts of the 
several classes of domestic animals, such that each 
is adapted to the different classes of substances upon 
which they feed and thrive. 

325. Digestion by Fowls. Birds swallow their food 
whole without chewing. It passes first into the crop, 
where it is stored and softened by soaking. (Fig. 159 I). 
Then it passes into the thick-walled, muscular stomach 
or gizzard. The gizzard is supplied with powerful 

(233) 



234 



Elementary Principles of Agriculture 



muscles which break 
This is greatly aided 
swallow. 

326. Herbivorous 

usually be eaten in 
needed nutrients. In 
is not only of a great 
chambered stomach. 



up the food eaten by the fowls, 
by the sharp gravel which fowls 

Animals. Vegetable food must 
greater quantity to furnish the 
herbivorous animals the intestine 
length, but often has a large and 
furnishing a large laboratory 




Fig. 159. Stomachs of some tlomestic animals. I, Crop and gizzard of fowl. A, 
oesophagus; B, glandular stomach; C, gizzard. II. Interior of horse 
stomach showing the two kinds of lining. A, left sac with tough white 
lining; B, right sac with soft red lining where the digestive juices are 
secreted; E, duodenum. III. Stomach of ox as seen from right upper race 
(Chauveau), and IV, Stomach of sheep with second, third and fourth 
divisions open. A, oesophagus; B' right portion, and B" left portion of 
rumen of first stomach; C, reticulum; D, omasum; E, abomasum, or true 
stomach; F, duodenum. 



Nutrition of the Animal Body 235 

in which the digestive processes may be carried out. 
In the stomach of the horse, whicli is comparatively 
small, two regions may be distinguished, of which only 
the right or second part secretes digestive juices. 

327. Ruminating Animals. In cattle and all split- 
hoof animals, the stomach has four more or less distinct 
compartments. (Fig. 159 III and IV). When a sheep or 
cow bites off a bit of grass, it is moistened with a small 
amount of saliva and swallowed without chewing, pass- 
ing into the stomach or paunch. The stomach is a mere 
store-house. After a time the animal finds a quiet place, 
regurgitates a ball of grass, called a cud, which is slowly 
ground up between the molar teeth. This mass is again 
swallowed and passes into the second stomach, and 
then on to the fourth or true stomach where the gastric 
digestion commences. Ruminating animals continue 
the digestive processes for a longer period, chew their 
food finer, and, in general, digest a larger per cent of the 
protein, carbohydrates, crude fiber and fat, than non- 
ruminants, like the horse. 

328. Nutrients in Feeds. The animal must secure 
from the feeds consumed all the substances needed for 
the support and growth of the animal body. The undi- 
gested parts form the waste. The nutritive substances 
actually secured from the feeds are classed as: 

1. Proteids (albumin, albuminoids, amides, etc.). 

2. Fats (oils, fats). 

3. Carbohydrates (sugar, starches, gums, celluloses). 

4. Mineral Matters (salts' of the elements found 
in plants). 

5. Water. 

329. Functions of the Nutrients. The two chief uses 
of the nutrients in animal feeds are to supply: 



236 Elementary Principles oj Agriculture 

1. Building material for muscle, bones, skin, etc., 
and repair the waste. 

2. Heat to keep the body warm, and to supply 
energy for work. 

The several classes of nutrients act in different ways 
in fulfilling these functions. The proteids from the 
muscles, tendons, gristle, hair and hoofs supply the pro- 
teids of blood, milk and other fluids, as well as the whites 
and yellow in eggs. The chief fuel or heat-giving ingre- 
dients are the carbohydrates and fats. These are con- 
sumed in the body or stored as fat to be used as occa- 
sion demands. The proteids may supply energy, though 
it is not supposed that they do so in the presence of 
sufficient fats and carbohydrates. 

330. Fuel Value of Feeds. Starches, sugars, and fats, 
are burned (oxidized) in the body and yield heat and 
power, just as the same substances would if burned 
in the stove to heat the house or under the boiler to 
make the steam for the engine. The heat or energy is 
developed gradually as the needs of the body demand. 
Scientists have ways of determining the fuel value of 
substances, and for the purpose of comparison use as 
the unit of measurement the calorie (equal to the heat 
required to raise one kilogram of water one degree Centi- 
grade, or one pound of water four degrees Fahrenheit). 

331. Digestibility of Feeds. The value of a substance 
as a feed depends not only upon the quantity of the 
different kinds of nutrients contained, but also upon 
how much of the nutrients are in a form that they can 
be digested and used for the support of the animal 
body. The usefulness of a substance for feeding depends, 
then, not on its gross weight, but upon the amount of 
building material and heat energy which the animal 



Nutrition of the Animal Body 237 

may extract from it. In comparing feeding substances 
we should not only know the actual amount of proteids, 
fat, carbohydrates, etc.. contained, but what per cent of 
these substances is digestible. 

In some digestion tests at the Oklahoma Experiment 
Station with cockerels, it was found that 79.4 per cent 
of the whole kaffir corn was digested, i. e., retained 
in the animal's body; in the same way 81.9 per cent of 
corn, and 64.1 per cent of cowpeas were digested. 

332. Digestibility of the Nutrients. In the cUgfestion 
tests mentioned above the composition of the substance 
fed, the nutrients digested and the waste, were as fol- 
lows for each 100 grams consumed: 

Protein Carbohydrates and fats 

Nutrients in Kaffir corn. . . 11.88 grams 75.26 grams 

Digested and retained 6.28 grams 73.90 grams 

Undigested waste 5.60 grams 2.17 grams 

In the above case it is noted that nearly all the 
carbohydrates were digested, though only about half 
of the proteids were used in the cockerel's body. Similar 
tests have been made for many kinds of feeds with 
many kinds of animals. 

We see from this example that a chemical analysis 
giving the quantity of the nutrients is not an exact 
statement of the available nutrients. Appendix B gives 
the average results of many tests of the digestibility of 
American feeding materials. See also tables of compo- 
sition in Appendix. 

333. Ratio of Digestible Nutrients. In feeding ani- 
mals it is important, as will be shown, to know the ratio 
of the digestible proteids, or flesh -forming nutrients, 
to the effective heat - forming substances. This ratio 



238 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 

is called the "nutritive ratio^^ and is taken to mean the 
ratio of the digestible proteids to the digestible car- 
bohydrates plus 2.25 times the fat. (The fat has two 
and one-fourth times as much heat energy per pound 
as the carbohydrates.) Thus, in the preceding example, 
the nutritive ratio is 1:11.6, which means that the heat- 
producing nutrients are 11.6 times greater than the 
tissue-building nutrients. 

Example with Cowpeas. 





Proteids 


Carbohydrates 


Fats 




Grams 


Grams 


Grams 


Nutrients in cowpeas . 


.. 21.44 


62.16 


2.38 


Digested and retained . . , 


. . 8.68 


55.30 


2.24 



Undigested waste 12.76 6.86 .14 

Ratio for digestible nutrients is 8.68 :(55.30+2.24x 2.25) = 

8.68:(55.30-h5.60) = 

8.68: 60.90 = nutritive ratio 1:7.01 

The ratio calculated according to the chemical 
composition is 1:3.1, which we see would be quite mis- 
leading, judging by the actual ratio of digestible nutri- 
ents which is 1:7.01. 

334. Application of Ratios. The ratio of flesh-form- 
ing nutrients to the heat-producing nutrients should be 
suited to the condition and requirements of the animal. 
Animals at heavy work, where the muscle materials 
are being used up, require relatively more proteids 
than when merely at rest. Likewise, young and grow- 
ing animals require plenty of building material, or 
animals which produce substances like milk, eggs 
and wool, — substances that contain large quantities 
of proteids, — should have food rich in proteids. (See 
table B in Appendix.) 



Nutrition of the Animal Body 239 

335. Economy of Balanced Rations. When the pro- 
teids and heat -producing substances are supplied in 
the ratio approximately in which they are consumed, 
the ratio is said to be ''balanced." There may be wide 
limits in the nutritive ratio without imparing the general 
health of the animals, but there may be a great differ- 
ence in the cost of properly nourishing the animal. The 
feeds rich in proteids are very expensive, and it is desired 
that they be used only in the formation of nitrogenous 
products, and never to supply energy. The cheaper 
starchy foods should be used in sufficient quantity 
to supply heat and muscular energy. Thus, we see 
that by knowing something of the composition and 
digestibility of the common feeds, we may combine 
them in such proportions that the animal may be prop- 
erly nourished at small cost. 

336. Kinds of Rations. Rations are classed accord- 
ing to their effect on the animal, as regards bodily weight 
or function. The most usual designations are: 

(a) Deficient ration is one in which the animal 
loses weight. 

(b) Maintenance ration is one Avhich allows just 
enough to keep the animal in good health without loss 
or gain in bodily weight. This is usually about three- 
fourths to one pound of nutrients to the hundred pounds 
of live weight. 

(c) Growing ration is one allowing of a regular 
gain in weight. The amount af feed which a young 
animal may profitably consume varies widely, usually 
from 2 to 4 per cent of live weight. 

(d) Work ration is one that will sustain an animal 
at work without loss of weight or vigor. 

(e) Dairy ration is one that suppHes the materials 



240 



Elementarii Principles of Agriculture 



for maintenance of bodily conditions, as well as those 
used in secreting the milk. 

There are many other kinds of special rations, refer- 
ring to the bodily needs of animals maintained under 
special conditions, such as egg rations, wool rations, 
etc. 

337. Planning a Ration. Suppose it is desired to 
know how much and what kinds of feeds to give to a 
dairy cow of 1,000 pounds live weight, giving two gal- 
lons of milk per day. Turning to table of standard 
feeding requirements we have: 

Live weight Total 
pounds dry 

required matter 

Dairy COW, 16 lbs. milk.. 1,000 27 



Digestible nutrients 
Pro- Carbo- 

tein hydrate Fat 

2.0 11.0 0.4 



The problem is to find the combination of feeds 
that will supply the above nutrients in approximately 
the amounts indicated. Suppose we have alfalfa hay, 
wheat bran and cottonseed meal. After studying the 
tables of composition and digestible nutrients as given 
in the Appendix, we ma}^ make a trial guess, with the 
result as follows: 





Amount 


Dry 

matter 


Digestible nutrients 




Feeds 


Proteid 


Carbohy- 
drates, fat 


Cost 


Alfalfa hay, dry. 

Mixed hay 

Wheat bran .... 
Cottonseed meal. 


10 lbs. 
10 lbs. 

5 lbs. 

lib. 


9.2 

8.5 

4.4 

.9 


1.10 
.44 
.60 
.40 


4.2 

4.4 

2.3 

.4 





Total 


26 lbs. 


23.0 


2.54 


11.3 


.... 



The result shows that we do not have enough dry 
matter, and too much proteid by .54 pounds. The 



Nutrition of the Animal Body 



241 



latter is usually very expensive and would be advisable 
only when the alfalfa was very cheap. Suppose we 
decrease the alfalfa^ increase the mixed hay, and leave 
out the cottonseed meal, which may be done when we 
feed rich nitrogenous hay, Uke alfalfa. Then we try: 





Amount 


Dry 

matter 


Digestible nutrients 




Feeds 


Protein 


Carbohy- 
drates, fat 


Cost 


Alfalfa hay 

Mixed hay 

Bran 


5 lbs. 

20 lbs. 

5 lbs. 


4.6 

16.9 

4.4 


.55 

.88 
.60 


2.1 
8.9 
2.3 


.... 








Totals 


30 lbs. 25.9 


2.03 


13.3 





The result is quite close enough. Close observation 
may suggest slight variations to suit the needs of differ- 
ent animals. It should be understood that these '^stand- 
ards" are average, and that particular animals may 
require more or less than the amounts indicated. 

338. The Amount of Feed required depends on the 
size and condition, and also on the individuality of 
the animal. By many carefully conducted trials, inves- 
tigators of feeding problems have made approximations 
of the dry matter, protein, carbohydrates, etc., needed 
per hundred or thousand pounds live weight of animal 
per day. (See table of feeding standards in Appendix.) 

339. Roughage and Concentrated Foods. According 
to the per cent of digestible nutrients in feed stuffs 
they are classed as Roughage and Concentrates. Sub- 
stances like hay, which contain a large per cent of undi- 
gestible, substance, are called Forage or Roughage, and 
those like the grains, cottonseed meal, etc., in which 
nearly all is digestible, are called Concentrates. Rough- 



242 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 

age is desirable to give bulk to the ration. Straw is an 
excellent roughage, yet if fed on straw alone, an animal 
would be unable to eat enough to secure the needed 
nutrients. If fed on concentrates entirely, the digestive 
juice could not act on all parts sufficiently and disorder 
would follow. Water and fiber give bulk to feeds. 
Ruminating animals require about two-thirds of their 
feed to be in the form of roughage. For horses, about 
one-half should be in the form of roughage. 

340. The Food Should Be Palatable. The food supplied 
should be relished. A ration may be perfectly balanced 
so far as its nutrients are concerned, and yet if it is not 
palatable, good results may not be secured. One way 
of making foods palatable is to give a change — change 
in hay or in concentrates. In changing from one kind 
of feed to another, however, the change should be made 
gradually. Abrupt changes in feed are likely to throw 
highly fed animals ^'off feed." Animals relish variety 
at the dinner-table just as we do. The good effect of 
green feeds in winter time is probably due in part to 
this fact. Green feeds through the winter may be easily 
supplied in nearly all parts of the South by sowing fall 
oats or wheat. Green feeds aid the digestion of other 
feeds. 

341. Importance of Salt for Stock. Every good 
farmer knows that his stock needs salt, and takes pains 
to supply them. All classes of farm animals should 
have salt where they can get it every day. Almost 
every animal will take salt every day. Either fine 
or rock-salt may be used, and, to prevent waste from 
rains, it should, if possible, be under a shed. Ruminating 
animals (sheep and cattle) need salt more regularly 
and abundantly than horses. Dairy cows should always 



Nutrition of the Animal Body 243 

receive special attention in this respect. Salt aids diges- 
tion^ improves the appetite, and lessens the danger 
from disease. Small ciuantities of salt in the feed will 
often stimulate the appetite of sick animals and acts 
as a good tonic. 

342. Preparations of Feeds. The extent to which 
different feeds should be prepared by grinding, shred- 
ding, soaking, cooking, etc., before feeding is, in many 
cases, an open question. When grain is fed to ruminants 
it is best to have it milled, but in other cases it is fre- 
quently without advantages, except in the case of kaffir 
corn. Kaffir corn should be ground for all farm stock. 

343. Racial Peculiarities are observed in the way 
different breeds dispose of the feed they consume above 
that required for maintenance. This is important. 
The extent to which an animal disposes of the feed above 
that required for maintenance governs the profit or 
loss in animal husbandry. It is this extra quantity of 
feed that makes flesh, milk, eggs, or performs work. 
If the maintenance ration be assumed to be eight pounds 
of dry matter and the feed contains twenty-five pounds, 
what becomes of the additional seventeen pounds 
of feed? The Hereford steer would deposit it in the 
loin steaks and thick quarters. The animals would 
gain in weight. The dairy cow would probably not gain 
in weight but use it in making the fat, sugar and curd 
of milk. An animal is valuable for its ability to trans- 
form large quantities of crude farm feeds into special 
products, such as valuable cuts of meat, milk, wool, 
etc., or perform labor. 

344. Individual Peculiarities are also to be noted. 
The average dairy cow will profitably use about six 
pounds of feed above the maintenance ration. Many 



244 Elementary Principtes of Agriculture 

animals will be able to profitably use only three or four 
pounds, while still others may return a profit on twelve 
or fifteen pounds. The intelligent feeder knows how 
to feed to get best results, but in every herd or flock 
there are ''good feeders" and ''poor feeders." The 
wise breeder notes the peculiarities in selecting his 
animals for propagation. "Like begets like," in habits 
as well as in form. 

345. Skill in Feeding. The observant farmer or 
feeder will soon learn the peculiarities of his animals. 
He never feeds an animal so abundantly that the appe- 
tite will be lax at the next feeding. He will feed often 
and regulavty. In fattening hogs, steers, etc., he begins 
with light rations, and increases gradually as circum- 
stances suggest until the stock are on "full feed." 

346. Pasturage. Wherever possible, provision should 
be made for stock to gather green food from pastures. 
It is a benefit to the fields to sow them in winter annuals 
and allow the stock to graze during dry weather. This 
is especially desirable for poultry, dairy cattle and hogs. 
In some cases it is profitable to haul the green feed to 
the stock, rather than pasture it. This latter practice 
is spoken of as "soiling" and the crop as a "soiling 
crop." 

347. Shelter for Farm Animals. A simple shelter 
to shield stock and poultry from wet or cold weather 
is necessary on every farm. This need not be so elabo- 
rate and costly as those used in colder regions. Shelter 
reduces the cost of feeding. Exposure reduces the 
flow of milk in dairy cows, and the frequency of laying 
in poultry. 



CHAPTER XXXIII 
FARM DAIRYING 

348. Farm Dairying. The dairy cow on the farm 
is a necessity, first and foremost, because she supplies 
food for the family which in quality and cheapness is 
without comparison. Milk and eggs supply the protein 
nutrients needed by the human body cheaper than 
meats. A pound of steak, a dozen eggs, or a quart of 
milk supply about the same amount of protein, yet 
the selling price of the milk, on an average, is less than 
half the cost of the others. Milk and butter are not 
only important foods, but valuable condiments used 
in many ways in rendering other foods palatable. It 
is these qualities that make a market for dairy products 
the world over. 

349. A Natural Advantage of the South is the ease 
with which green feeds may be grown throughout the 
entire yesir. Many dairies are profitable without green 
feeds, yet every one recognizes that fresh green feed, 
either in pastures or in soiling crops, are great aids in 
increasing the flow of milk. Mild winters remove the 
necessity for expensive barns, and reduce the quantity 
of feed needed to keep the cow in splendid condition. 

350. The Distinctive Quality of the Dairy Cow is 
her capacity to manufacture large quantities of milk, 
rich in butter -fat, from common feeds. A cow that 
does not give more than two gallons of rich milk per 
day should be discarded. The richness of the milk is 
always to be considered. The Babcock test (Fig. 160) 

(245) 



246 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 

places easily at the disposal of every farmer a means 
of determining the butter-producing qualities of every 
cow in the herd. The success or failure of the farm dairy 
to yield a profit on the outlay for land, building, feed 
and labor, lies in the proper selection of the cows to 
compose the herd. 

351. The Babcock Test is a simple means of testing 
the milk to determine the amount of butter-fat (rich- 
ness) contained in a sample of milk. It takes its name 
from Professor Babcock, of the University of Wisconsin, 
who discovered the method of making the test. By its 

use the dairyman may learn which 
of his cows pay for their board. 
The milk from each cow is 
weighed, and a small sample used 
to determine the per cent of but- 
ter-fat. Knowing these two facts, 
the total butter-yield for each cow 
may be calculated. In this way 
„. ,„^ ^ , the value of the cow is definitely 

Fig. 160. Apparatus used . . ^ 

in making the Babcock kuowu. It Is easier and more 
*^^*- reliable than a ''churning test." 

In making the test, a measured quantity of milk is put 
into a special flask (Fig. 160 A), and to this a small 
quantity of acid is added. By following a few simple 
operations, for which directions come with every 
machine, the per cent of butter-fat is read off directly 
on the graduated neck of the bottle. Knowing the 
per cent of butter-fat and the quantity of milk, the 
amount of butter in each cow's milk may be quickly 
calculated. 

352. How Dairy Cows Are Valued. The dairy cow 
is valuable according to her abilitv to convert farm feeds 




Farm Dairying 



247 



into milk rich in butter-fat. Creameries and dairies 
pay for milk according to the per cent of butter-fat, 
and not the mere- gallons of milk. 

352a. (a) Farmer ''A" runs a small butter dairy. He bought 
a Babcock Test, and made a test of each cow's milk with the fol- 
lowing results: 



Name of cow 



Blossom 
Flower . 
Nancy . 
Lily --. 



Average daily 
flow of milk 



Pounds 
23 
14 
31 
20 



Per cent of butter- 
fat in average 
samples 



Per cent 

2.3 
3.1 
4.2 
6.5 



Pounds butter- 
fat daily 



Calculate the amount of butter-fat in each cow's milk. One 
pound of butter-fat is equal to one and one-sixth pounds commer- 
cial butter. How much butter would these cows make in ten 
months? 



353. Other Uses of the Babcock Test. Creameries 
no longer buy milk by the ''gallon/' but pay so much 
a pound for the butter-fat. This does away with the 
temptation to water the milk. In cities, public dairies 
are required to sell pure milk, with a certain amount 
of butter-fat, usually not less than 35 per cent. By the 
use of the test, both the dairyman and the public offi- 
cials may easily know if the milk is up to the required 
standard of richness. The butter in buttermilk is often 
a source of considerable loss. By testing the buttermilk, 
or skim-milk, the dairyman may know if his methods 
get all the butter. 

354. Composition of Milk. Milk contains about 87 
per cent water and 13 per cent solids, divided as fol- 
lows: 5 per cent sugar, 3.3 per cent protein, 4 per cent 



248 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 

fat and only 0.7 per cent mineral matter, or salts. The 
milk from different cows varies considerably. The solids 
may be as low as 10 per cent or as high as 18 per cent. 
The protein (the substance that thickens and forms 
clabber) may be low if cows do not receive feeds suffi- 
ciently rich in protein. The fat varies, sometimes as 
low as 2.5 per cent and sometimes as high as 8 per cent. 
The legal standard required by state and city laws is 
3 to 3.5 per cent fat, and 9 to 9.5 per cent solids other 
than fat. The composition of milk is but shghtly changed 
by the feed a cow consumes. The feed does affect the 
quantity of milk, however. 

355. How the Kind of Feed Affects the Flow of Milk. 
The feeding of dairy cows to increase the flow of milk 
has long been studied, both by the experiment stations 
and practical dairymen. The exact methods of scien- 
tific investigation where the feed consumed and the 
milk and butter produced are carefully weighed, teach 
that for the best results dairy cows should have: 

(a) An allowance of green, succulent food, either 
by pasturing, soiling crops or silage. 

(6) Some dry roughness in the form of hay, corn 
stover, or straw. 

(c) Grains or concentrates supplying sufficient pro- 
tein and carbohydrates to bring the ration to the normal 
dairy standard. 

Succulent feeds promote the digestion of other feeds, 
and give flavor and color to the milk and butter. 

Dry roughage has a wholesome effect on the health 
and general condition of the cows. The cow craves 
some dry feed which can be hastily swallowed, and 
while lying down at rest, be regurgitated and chewed 
over. 



Farm Dairying 



249 






i^le 







356. Changes in Milk. Bacteria are the active agents 
of change in milk. The souring of milk is due to the 
formation of acid by bac- 
teria. When the acid 
accumulates in sufficient 
quantity, it combines with 
the protein to form the 
clabber. If bacteria are 
kept out of the milk, it will 
keep sweet indefinitely. 
The flavors developed in 
milk and butter are due 
to the presence of certain 
kinds of bacteria. Some give the butter undesirable 
flavor, and some greatly improve the flavor. The flavor 
of butter, however, may be controlled by destroying 
all the bacteria in the milk or cream by Pasteurization. 
(11 367.) After the milk or cream has been freed from 
the desirable, as well as undesirable germs, by the 
process mentioned, it is then cooled and desirable ones 

: -^'"/ ,''-'-■' -^_ 



Fig 1161. Microscopic appearance of 
ordinary milk showing fat globules 
and bacteria in the milk. The 
cluster of bacteria on left side are 
lactic acid -forming germs. After 
Russell, Wisconsin Bulletin, No. 62. 



Progeny of 
a Single Germ © 
in twelve hours. 










Fig. 162. Cooling hinders growth of bacteria. 
Wisconsin Bulletin, No. 62. 



After Russel, 



250 



Elementary Principles of Agriculture 



are added and maintained at a temperature favorable 
to the development of proper flavors and texture in the 
butter. This is preferably between 60° and 70° Fahr. 
This practice is known as adding a "starter," and is 
used extensively in commercial butter- 
making. In the absence of commercial 
starters, a little sour milk will prove 
quite satisfactory. 

357. Gravity Creaming. 
When milk is ''set" to allow 
the cream to rise, it should be 
kept cool. The cream rises 
quicker and more completely 
if kept cool by ice or moist 
cloths. Gravity creaming 
leaves from 0.5 to 1.0 per 
cent of the butter-fat in 
the milk even when the 
temperature of the milk 
is kept at 60° Fahr. The 
rise of the fat globules of 
milk to form ''cream" is 
due to the fact that fat 
is lighter than water or 
the milk serum. 

358. Centrifugal Cream- 

rni . Fig. 163. A modern cream separator. 

mg. The cream separator 

is a machine for separating the cream from milk while 
fresh. It separates cream much better, quicker and 
with less work .than gravity creaming. Good sepa- 
rators leave only 0.1 to 0.2 per cent of the butter-fat in 
the milk. The separator also gives a cleaner cream than 
can be obtained by the usual methods. The effective- 




Farm Dairi/ing 251 

ness of cream separators is due to the action of centrif- 
ugal force, which has a tendency to throw the heavier 
particles to the outside. Cream being lighter than 
skimmed milk, it is thrown to the center and the 
skimmed milk thrown to the outside of a rapidly re- 
volving hollow ball. 

358a. Farmer Smith milked ten cows, giving an average of 
6,000 pounds of milk per year. He used the gravity creaming pro- 
cess and lost one-third to three-fourths pound of butter on every 
hundred poimds of milk due to imperfect separation of the cream. 
His neighbor advised the purchase of a cream separator which 
would leave only one-twentieth pound of butter-fat in the milk, 
telling him that besides saving the difference in butter-fat he would 
be able to feed his calves the fresh-skimmed warm milk. Estimate 
the difference and give your advice to Farmer Smith. 

359. Sanitary Dairy Products. In the production 
of sanitary dairy products great care must be observed 
in the following particulars: (1) The healthfulness 
of the animals. (2) The healthfulness of the milker. 
(3) The cleanliness of the stables. (4) The care in 
milking. (5) The care in keeping the milk. Unless 
all of these conditions are carefully observed, sanitary 
milk-production is an impossibility. 

360. The Healthfulness of the Animals. Unless the 
the dairy cow is in a healthy condition, she should 
not be expected to secrete a healthy milk. All of the 
blood which goes to the manufacture of milk must pass 
through the circulation, and if any diseases are present 
the blood is apt to take up the germs producing them, 
and in some cases these same germs have been found 
in the milk. It will, therefore, be noted that the first 
essential in the production of sanitary dairy products 
is the presence of a healthy herd of cows. 

361. The Healthfulness of the Milkers. On account 



252 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 

of the fact that milk is pecuUarly adaptable to the 
growth of germs, any one having a contagious or infec- 
tious disease should not come in contact with it. Germs 
are always present in such cases, as smallpox, typhoid 
fever, diphtheria, etc., and are certain to find their way 
into the product if the person afflicted is permitted 
to come in contact with the milk or butter. 

362. Cleanliness of the Stable. At best, the stable 
is difficult to free from bacteria. The great natural 
enemies of bacteria are light and sunshine. The stable 
should be kept clean, and there should always be pres- 
ent an abundance of fresh air and sunshine. The dark 
corners of the stable, filled with dust, are the houses 
of millions of germs which finally find their way into 
thfe milk and make it unfit for human food. 

363. Care in Milking. When milk first comes from 
a healthy cow it is clean, wholesome, and free from 
bacteria or germs. It is also known that it is possible 
to produce milk with comparatively only a few germs 
by the exercise of care in milking. The care in milking 
consists in clean hands and clean clothes on the part 
of the milker and the proper cleaning of the cow's 
udder before the milking begins. 

364. Care in Keeping Milk. Milk is very susceptible 
to bad odors as well as germs, therefore, it should be 
removed to a cool, clean place as soon as milked. The 
milking should precede the feeding, as there is always 
more or less dust present in feeding hay, and other 
undesirable odors are present, when feeding silage or 
root crops. As soon as milked, the animal heat and 
animal odor should be removed by thoroughly airing 
and cooling the milk. 

365. Churning. The size, consistency and number 



Farm Dairj/ing 



253 



of the butter-fat globules is not always the same. The 
object of churning is to cause these many, minute fat 
globules to unite to form larger ones. This is brought 
about by agitating the milk in such a way that the 
globules will rub against each other and unite. As 
temperature greatly affects the consistency of the 




Fig. 164. Revolving barrel churn. 

globules it also affects the nature of the result in churn- 
ing. If the temperature is very low, the globules are 
hard and are less likely to adhere in the operation of 
churning. If the temperature is very high, it renders 
the globules quite soft and churning has a tendency to 
cause them to break up into even smaller particles. 
There are many other conditions besides the tempera- 
ture that affect the "gathering," or "breaking," of the 



254 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 

butter-fat globules and the character or quality of 
the butter, such as the condition and breed of the cows, 
the feed of the cows, the temperature maintained dur- 
ing the ripening of the cream, the acidity of the cream 
and even the nature of the agitation given the cream 
in churning. As these conditions vary, so will the tem- 
perature giving the most favorable results in churning. 
Practical dairymen usually try to maintain a tempera- 
ture near 59 to G5 degrees in churning. The preference 
will usually be for the lower temperatures because of 
the l)etter qualit}" of the butter, although it will require 
a longer time to churn. There are many styles of churns 
on the market, 1)ut expert butter-makers usually prefer 
some form of revolving box or barrel churn, claiming 
that it gives a butter with better quality. Where the 
agitation is produced by paddles the grain of the butter 
is not so desiral:>le as in the open-centered churns. 

366. Judging Butter. Butter is now judged by a 
scale of points just as the breeds of live stock and crops 
are. The points of most importance are (1) flavor, 
(2) texture, (3) color, (4) salt, and (5) package. Varia- 
tions in flavor are due to several causes, such as breed 
of cows, individuality of cow, nature of feed, acidity of 
cream and kind of bacteria in the cream. Variations 
in texture are due chiefly to the nature of the feed and 
the temperature at which the cream ripens, and, also, 
the churning temperature, as discussed above. 

367. Pasteurization. One way of keeping milk 
longer than could be done under natural conditions, 
consists in heating to a temperature of 160° Fahr. 
and then rapidly cooling. This method of treating milk 
is known as Pasteurization, and takes its name after 
Pasteur, the great French bacteriologist. The object 



Farm Dairying 255 

of heating and cooling is to destroy the majority of 
bacteria present, and prevent the others which are not 
affected at that temperature, from becoming active. 
The temperature given above is deemed sufficient to 
destroy all, at least all disease-producing, germs and is 
not high enough to affect the flavor of the milk. 

368. Clarification. We have just observed the 
practice of freeing milk from bacteria in order to make 
it ''keep" longer. Now let us note the practice employed 
in freeing the milk from undesirable foreign matter. 
It matters not how careful the milker is in doing his 
work, there is always more or less foreign matter, which 
passes through a ''strainer." This substance may be 
separated from the milk by centrifugal force. The 
process is known as clarification, and the machine 
used "s known as a clarifier. The machine is built on 
precisely the same plan as a cream separator, and often- 
times the separator is used for the purpose. 




Fig. 165. Where shrubs are needed. 




Fig. 166. Where shrubs are added. Compare with Fig. 165. 



PABT III— SPECIAL TOPICS 



CHAPTER XXXIV 
THE HOME LOT 

369. The Decoration of a Landscape with herbs, 
shrubs and trees has been called '^picture-making out- 
of-doors." Whether we know it or not, all of us have 
a great appreciation of the beauty and grandeur of 
landscapes. We recognize that some landscapes are 
attractive, or that the surroundings of some homes 
look bleak. Again, there is the little cottage of the new- 
comer, simple though it may be, yet we say, "It's a nice 
place." Ask us why, and the answer is a very uncertain 
one. Why? It's because we fail to recognize the essen- 
tials of a good picture. 

370. Studying Landscapes. Compare Fig. 165 with 
Fig. 166. Manifestly, one is more pleasing to the eye 
than the other, but why? Some shrubs have been added, 
it is true, but it is not the shrubs in themselves that are 
so noticeably pleasing. The shrubs cover up many of 
the harsh geometrical Unes and make the landscape look 
more natural. Had the shrubs been placed in the open 
space the effect would not have been half so pleasing. 
The large open lawn gives an attractive setting for the 
trees farther on. A comparison of these two pictures 
teaches us the A, B, C of landscape art. In making 

Q (257) 



258 



Elementary Principles of Agriculture 




the plants 



pictures on the land- 
scape, whether around 
the home or the 
school house, we 
should 

(.4) Strive to avoid 
sharp, straight lines; 

(B) Preserve open 
spaces; 

(C) Plant in 
masses, and note how 
nature plants trees 

and shrubbery for instructive examples. (Figs. 167, 168.) 
371. Rural Home Grounds should have such group- 
ings of lofty trees and attractive shrubs that the sharp 
lines of houses, barns and fences shall be softened into 
a natural picture. The appearance of the home lot 
should suggest more than mere shelter for man and his 
useful animals. It should appear as though the house, 
barns and 'ots were built in what was naturally an at- 
tractive landscape. 
Open lawns and large 
trees are always 
pleasing. In the 
crowded city such 
features may, from 
necessity, be dis- 
pensed with, but, 
w hen the c o u n t r y 
house is set in a 
small yard, it im- 
presses us immedi- Fig. leS. a plan that makes a good picture, 
. whether viewed from the house or the 

ately as showing too highway. 





Fig. 169. A good plan for the arrangement and decoration of a farm-house, 
buildings and grounds. 



260 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 

great a contrast with the natural openness that is so 
characteristic of farm life. 

372. Planning a Home Lot is a matter requiring 
much study. Along with the study of the view of the 
home site from within and without, we must cautiously 
plan for all the conveniences for the Hving of both man 
and beast. The location of the house, the barns, poultry 
houses, roads, gardens, orchards and fences should 
first be studied from the standpoint of convenience and 
healthfulness. When these features are planned, then 
we may study how to complete the picture and introduce 
those features that make a residence "home-Uke." 

373. Completing the Picture. In placing the trees, 
shrubs and flower-beds, we should consider first the 
outlook from the house, — the view that we will see most 
often. Next we may consider the view from the highway. 
In both cases the openness of view should be preserved. 
In planting the trees and shrubs we are using them 
only as materials. They may make or mar the view, 
according to the way we arrange them. Fig. 169. 

374. Locating the Plants. In making a plan, the 
grouping of the plants should be carefully worked out. 
For every plant to be used, we must know how it will 
look, and how much space is required when fully mature. 
After a satisfactory knowledge of the plants has been 
gained, we may mark the place for each on our plan 
(Fig. 169). The way the plants are grouped makes a 
great difference in the appearance of the place. Every 
attractive picture has some one central object. In mak- 
ing a picture on the landscape, the home, or the school- 
house is to be made the central feature. As a picture 
is often marred by a poor frame, so may a landscape 
lose its attractiveness by improper use of plants. 



The Home Lot 261 

375. Plants to Use. Landscape architects are also gar- 
deners in that they must know the character of many 
kinds of plants and the conditions under which they 
succeed. In selecting trees and shrubs for home plant- 
ing, it is important that sorts be used that succeed. 
Native wild plants should always be considered. By 
observing the plants that are grown on other persons' 
grounds, we may often learn of the good sorts and 
avoid undesirable varieties. In selecting the plants, it 
is always advisable to consult the local nurseryman. 

375a. Make a list, using the names given in the nursery cata- 
logues of all the different kinds of trees, shrubs, perennial and 
annual flowers that grow well in your locality. Mention the location 
in the community of one or more plants of each sort. 



CHAPTER XXXV 
SCHOOL GARDENS 

376. The School is a place where many of our ideas 
and ideals are formed. It should be more than a place 
where we take short cuts to knowledge, that is, learning 
from teachers and books what others have found out 
by observation and investigation. Nature does not 
teach by words, pages or chapters. To understand 
nature's forces and how to control them, for our 
benefit, we must get close to her creatures. 

377. The School Garden should be a place to learn 
what is true, beautiful and useful about plants, insects, 
soils, birds, sunshine and rain. We may do this by 
working with nature, by growing a small number of sev- 
eral kinds of plants and observing their needs as they 
grow from seed to fruitage. In outw^ard appearance, 
school gardens do not differ from home gardens. All 
the common sorts of plants may be grown in a school 
garden, though we observe and study them more closely. 
Some plants must be cultivated one way, while others 
require different care. In a school garden we seek the 
explanation of the differences. If w^e grow a small 
number of plants and observe the progress of each 
separate plant, we will learn a great deal about how to 
care for a large crop. (See Frontispiece.) 

378. Laying Out a School Garden. When a piece of 
ground has been secured it should be cut up into a 
number of small gardens — one for each student. A 

(262) 



School Gardens 263 

diagram should be made .showing all the walks and the 
location of each student^s plot. Space should be left 
for walks between the gardens sufficient to allow access 
on all sides. The main walks may l)e five to eight feet 
wide, and the smaller walks only eighteen inches wide. 
A larger plot should be left for growing corn, pumpkins 
and other plants too large for the individual gardens. 
All students should take part in caring for the large plot. 
The laying out of the entire garden, and all questions 
about how it should be managed should be fully discussed 
by all students. Each student should make a plan and 
submit it to the teacher, who will select the best. 

379. Individual Gardens. Every student — boy and 
girl — should have a small plot of ground on which they 
will begin w^ork in the fall at the opening of school. 

Each student should make a plan for his or her 
garden, covering the preparation of the ground, selecting 
the kinds of plants or seeds to be grown, and all other 
important features. If the teacher approves the plan, 
the w^ork may be begun. If any changes are desired, the 
consent of the teacher should be secured before carrying 
them out. The students remain responsible for the 
success and appearance of their plots. Some gardens 
will be so fine that they will show the importance of 
care. No student should allow his or her garden to be 
pointed out as an example of what neglect will do. 

380. Selecting Plants. In selecting plants for the 
garden, preference should be given to kinds that will 
mature during the school term. Some hardy sorts may 
be planted in the fall. 

Many plants mature so quickly that two or more 
crops may be grown on the same land. The plan for 
the garden should show how and when the land will be 



264 



Elementary Principles oj Agriculture 





Dwarf Nasturtium 


s 


Radish 


o 


Radish 




Radish 




Lettuce 


i^H 


Lettuce 


CD 


Beans 


O 


Beans 




Beets 


>s 


Beets 


o 

1 


Beans 


Turnips 




White oats 


is- 

8 


Red oats 


a; 
o 


Barley 


£ 


Wheat 


Fig 


170. Plan of a garden with 
vegetable and field crops. 





Petunia 




Petunia 




Zinnia 




Zinnia 




Ageratum 




Nasturtium 


1 

7i 


Radish 




Radish 


-B 
^ 


Lettuce 


^ I 


Lettuce 


M 


Beets 




Beets 


o 


Beans 


fS 


Beans 




Poppies 




Shirley Peppies 
Plant in fall 



Fig. 171. Plan of a garden with 
flowers and vegetables. 




'As the roose in his radness is richest of floures." 

—Destruction of Troy. Early English translation, 1670. 



School Garden 265 

prepared, where each kind of plant will be in the garden, 
how and when each kind will be planted. Each student 
should strive to do well. Figs. 170 and 171. 

381. The School Grounds should be made attractive 
by planting trees, shrubs, flowers and vines. Just as 
every one takes pride in the appearance of the home lot, 
so does the community feel a pride in keeping the school 
grounds in order. The school grounds should be kept in 
order by the pupils even during vacation. 



CHAPTER XXXVI 
FORESTRY 

382. A Forest is a considerable piece of land covered 
with large trees. Forests are directly important to 
mankind as sources of fuel,, lumber, heavy round timber, 
such as posts, piling, and telegraph poles; also, cooper- 
age stock, tan bark, wood pulp for paper-making, rosin, 
cork and many other useful supplies. They are also 
important because of their good effect in regulating 
stream flow, preventing the erosion of the land and, 
probably, in modifying climate. 

383. The Need of Forests was not fully recognized 
by the early settlers in timbered regions. The heavy 
timber was looked upon as an obstacle to rapid progress; 
l)ut, in recent years, when railroads are at hand to haul 
the forest products wherever they may be needed, they 
are quite valuable. Before a piece of timbered land is 
destroyed, the probable value of the annual harvest of 
forest products should be carefully considered. America 
is now repeating the forestry experiences of European 
countries. The forests were first destroyed to make 
room for the fields, gardens and orchards, and, as the 
farming interest reduced the timbered areas, fuel and 
lumber supplies became more difficult to secure. Then 
the forest was looked upon as something of value that 
should not be destroyed. Where the natural covering of 
the hills and bottoms have been removed, the bad effects 
caused by the washing of the soil from the hills and the 
flooding of the valleys has been plainly seen. 

(266) 



Forestry 



267 



384. Systematic Forestry teaches us to remove only 
the matured products, leaving the young timber to 
grow. France and man}^ European countries have had 
to restore, though at great expense, the forest condi- 
tions to large areas that had been thoughtlessly destroyed. 
In many of the Old World countries no man is allowed 
to destroy a mature forest tree without permission of a 
forest official, and this is often given only when another 
is started to take its place. Such restrictions seem 
needlessly severe to us, but is it improbable that, some 
day, we may find some such restriction necessary for 
the public good? 

385. The Exhaustion of Our Forest Resources is now 
going on at a rapid rate. Our forested areas are being 
rapidly reduced. Fig. 172 illustrates the present differ- 
ence between the use of for- 
est products and the rate of 
increase by growth. The east- 
ern states have long since 
all but exhausted their na- 
tural forests. The}' once 
secured the needed supplies 
of lumber from the virgin 
forests of the north central 
states, but today those areas 
are almost exhausted and 
the large lumber suppUes 
are now furnished by the northwestern and southern 
states. 

386. Conserving Our Forest Resources is a national 
need. In former times the lumberman cut everything. 
The young timber was needlessly destroyed. Now, 
however, they have realized the value of the small 




Fig. 172. Excess of annual cut 
over annual forest growth. 



268 Ele7nentary Principles of Agricultuce 

seedlings and saplings, and seek to protect them from 
forest fires and the grazing of stock. All the conditions 
that favor the growth of the young trees are carefully 
considered by the modern forester. 

387. Our Forest Reserves. Our government, observ- 
ing the great hardships resulting from an insufficient 
supply of forest products in the Old World, and how 
quickly the forests of the East and middle states have 
been reduced, has set aside large tracts of timbered 
regions in the western states as National Forest Reserves. 
These reserves form but a small part of our present 
forest resources; but, taken with the privately owned 
forests, are sufficient to supply our needs if properly 
used. Forestry plantings have been maintained in older 
countries for long periods and experience has shown 
that such plantings yield an annual revenue equal to 
four to eight dollars per acre. 

388. The Forest Service of the United States Depart- 
ment of Agriculture, and the Forestry Commissioners 
provided for in many states, study the problems of 
forest management and issue bulletins of information 
for the instruction of all who have land suitable for 
timber-growing. 

389. The Farm Wood-Lot. In many sections the 
waste lowland and the hill land may be planted to trees 
to supply fuel, poles and the many special timbers 
needed on every farm. In many cases such lands have 
been made to return to the farm products equal in value 
to the returns of the regular field crops. The value of a 
wood-lot will depend much upon the care, nature of the 
soil, and the kinds of trees planted. Of course it takes 
some years before the first harvest can be made; but 
this may be greatly shortened by planting thick and 



Forestry 



269 



cutting out the less desirable forms as the growth 
thickens. Varieties for wood-lot planting should be 
selected to suit the locality. Hardy catalpa, black 
locust, black walnut, honey locust, Bois d'Arc, or 
Osage orange, mulberries, and many other sorts, have 
proven to be w^ell suited to many sections of the South 
and West. Not every wood-lot has turned out a success; 




Fig. 173. A catalpa plantation. Every farm should have a wood lot. 
From Year Book, United States Department of Agriculture, 1899. 



270 Elementary Priyiciples of Agriculture 

but a larger number have. Many of the failures were 
due to neglect or to the selection of species unsuited to 
the conditions. 

389a. A farmer planted a large acreage of bottom land to hardy 
catalpas, in rows six feet apart and four feet apart in the row. At 
the end of ten years he found the books showed the following items: 
Cost of rent on land for ten years, seedlings, planting, cultivating, 
trimming, marketing, etc., $56. Value of stakes and small posts 
secured, early thinning, $63. Stock on hand: 678 posts, first class, 
10 cents each; 712 posts, second class, 7 cents each; 616 posts, 
third class, 4 cents each. What was the approximate value per 
acre per year of the crop? 

390. Windbreaks. In open regions, windbreaks, 
formed by growing shrubs and trees, have been found to 
be quite beneficial because of the protection they give 
to growing crops and orchards, or to stock. Windbreaks 
reduce the evaporation from the soil and from the 
plants themselves. They often prevent the drifting of 
the soil in open, sandy regions. They also protect stock 
from cold winds in winter and hot wdnds in summer. In 
regions that most need windbreaks, it is most difficult to 
get the trees to grow. The plan that has proven most 
satisfactory is to make plantings of arborvitse, locusts, 
Osage orange, red cedar, blackberries, green ash, or other 
species in wide rows and cultivate the trees until they 
become thoroughly estaldished. 



CHAPTER XXXVII 
FARM MACHINERY 

By PROF. J. B. DAVIDSON, Professor of Agricultural Engineering, 
Iowa State College 

391. Progress in Agriculture owes much to the intro- 
duction of machine methods for doing hand labor. When 
the savage began to plant seeds with a sharp stick in- 
stead of depending on wild nature, the idea was certainly 
a progressive one. When he learned that destroying the 
weeds that came up with those seeds would add to the 
quantity and the certainty of the harvest, he ceased to 
be a savage. Still again, when he learned to prepare 
the ground and cultivate his crops, civilization was 
well established. ^'Civilization begins and ends with the 
plow," and yet the plow remained a crude wooden tool 
until within comparatively recent times. 

392. Tillage Tools were not noticeably improved 
until chemists and botanists began to study the soil and 
formed a theory about the relation of the soil to the 
plant. Machines are not invented until the need for 
them is recognized. The ideas about the relation of the 
plant to the soil given in modern books would have 
been wondrous strange to our great -grandparents. 
McMaster--' tells us that 'The Massachusetts farmer 
who witnessed the Revolution, plowed his land with a 
wooden bull-plow, sowed his grain broadcast, and, when 
it was ripe, cut it with a scythe and thrashed it out on 
his barn floor with a flail." These implements w^ere 

^History of the People of the United States. 

(271) 



272 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 

similar to the ones used by the Egyptians three thou- 
sand years before. It is worthy of note that many of 
the greatest of the early Americans were interested in 
the development of the plow, the fundamental imple- 
ment of tillage. Thomas Jefferson and Daniel Webster 
planned plows and had them constructed, which were 
improvements over preceding types. In 1797, Charles 
Newbold introduced the iron plow, but it is recorded 
that the farmers of that time refused to use it, claiming 
that so much iron drawn through the soil poisoned the 




Fig. 174. Webster's plow. 

land and increased the growth of weeds. This latter 
superstition delayed the general acceptance of improved 
plows for many years. The use of iron and steel plows 
did not become general until about 1830. Many im- 
provements were made in the construction and form of 
the points and mold-boards, adapting them to various 
kinds of soils. The modern plow is familiar to all. The 
recent types of sulky plows enable the plowman to 
ride in a comfortable seat, and, when properly ad- 
justed, so that the pressure due to the raising and turn- 
ing of the furrow slice have no heavier draft than the 
walking plow. The single-shovel cultivator has given 
way to the double-shovel implement, and this, in turn, 
to the straddle-row cultivator, and, in many sections, 
the two-row cultivator is finding favor. 



Farm Machinery 



273 



393. Harvesting Machinery. Perhaps no hne of 
development has assisted agriculture so much as machine 
narvesting. The grass hook and the scythe were long 
in use. When a Scotchman put fingers to the scythe, 
forming the cradle, it was heralded as a great invention 
because it enabled one man to do the work of several 
equipped with the older implements. Obed Hussey 
and Cyrus H. McCormick"^' 
stand out prominently in the 
development of the reaper, 
which was later improved by 
many others, among whom 
Palmer, Williams, Marsh 
Brothers, Spaulchng and Ap- 
pleby should be mentioned, 
leading up to the self-binder 
in 1878. It appears marvel- 
ous to find that there has 
taken place within sixty 
years — -within the life of a 
single man — the universal in- 
troduction of machines which 
are so efficient and still require the guidance of Ijut 
one man to do the work of many. 

394. Farm Machinery. The general introduction of 
specialized farm machines, — implements too complex 

*Cyrus H. McCormick was born in Rockbridge county, Virginia, in 1809. 
His father had constructed a reaping machine, though his efforts, Uke those 
of many others along the same line, were not successful. Young Cyrus had 
watched his father's experiments and cherished the thought that some day he 
might solve the difficult problem. He abandoned the principle.^ that had 
formed the underlying features of his father's machine. The elder McCormick 
did not approve of the young man's plans, but he put no obstacles in his way, 
and offered him the facilities of his little blacksmith shop to build his first 
machine. Young McCormick completed his first reaper In time to give it a 
trial in the harvest of 1831, and it worked successfully that year. 




274 Etementary Principles of Agriculture 

to be called tools, — has made the modern farmer a 
mechanic. Modern haying implements, consisting of 
mowers, rakes, hay-loaders, stackers and presses, have 
greatly reduced the hand work in hay-making. It has 
been estimated that the farmer of 1850 spent eleven 
hours in cutting and storing a ton of hay, while, under 
modern methods, the time has been reduced to one hour 
and thirty-nine minutes. There are machines for every 




Fig. 176. McCormick reaping machine, 1834. 

class of farm work : Threshing-machines for threshing 
grain; shellers, for shelling corn from the cob; huskers 
and shredders, for removing the ears from the corn- 
stalk and converting the latter into palatable food for 
farm animals, and many others. This is true to such an 
extent that large farms have nearly as much invested 
in machinery as some factories. Many forms of machinery 
used on the farm require considerable power. Wind- 
mills, gasoline engines, and even steam engines, are not 



Farm Machinery 



275 



infrequently in regular use for pumping water, grinding 
grain, separating milk and other special operations. 
These motors increase the capacity of the farm worker 
by enabling him to use and direct more power, resulting 
in more economical production. Fig. 177. 

395. Power Versus Hand Labor. The change from 
hand tools to implements and special machinery has 
lead to the use of more power for each worker, and the 




Fig. 177. A suggestion for the use of power on the farm. From an 
agricultural implement catalogue. 

amount is governed somewhat by the abihty of the 
worker. Man, when working alone, is able to develop 
only about one-eighth horse power. When he uses one 
horse, his capacity to work is increased eightfold, and 
if two horses are used, sixteenfold. The American farmer 
is not content to drive his brain with a one-horse power 
when two, three or four may be used to advantage. 
This demand for more power has stimulated the breed- 
ing of larger horses for draft purposes. 

396. Care of Machinery. The operation of many 



276 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 

forms of farm machinery often taxes the mechanical 
skill of the average worker. Much loss results from the 
neglect to repair agricultural machines promptly and 
S3^stematically. Many machines are discarded which 
would be almost as good as new if the broken parts 
were replaced. Costly agricultural machines should be 
kept under shelter when not in actual use to lengthen 
their period of usefulness. 

397. The Influence of Agricultural Machinery on the 
quantity and quality of farm productions has ]:)rought 
many changes. The year 1850 has been mentioned as 
marking the transition from the use of implements for 
hand-production to those for machine-production. The 
increase in production per farm worker under modern 
methods is most marked. The Roman farmer in the 
time of Columella spent four and six-tenths days in 
growing a bushel of wheat. It is stated in the Thirteenth 
Annual Report of the United States Department of 
Labor that the x4merican farmer spent three hours in 
1830, under hand methods, in producing a bushel of 
wheat, at a cost of 17.7 cents, while now the same result 
is secured in nine minutes at a cost of 3.5 cents. In 1800, 
97 per cent of our people were living on farms, or in 
small towns, depending upon agriculture for food; 
yet, with all this army of workers, the country raised 
only five and five-tenths bushels of wheat per person. 
In 1900, while approximately only one-third of the 
population lived on farms, the production of wheat 
was ten bushels per capita, one-half of which was in 
excess of our needs. 

398. Other Changes in Farm Conditions have been 
made, at least in part, as a result of the change from 
hand methods to machine methods of production. An 



Farm Machinery 277 

old method of threshing grain was by the treading of 
animals, but bread made from wheat threshed in this 
manner would not be salable today. Women are no 
longer required to do heavy field work as they did at 
one time. The working day has fewer hours and the 
wages of the farm-worker has increased many fold. 
"All intelligent expert observation/' says Dodge, 
"declares it beneficial. It has relieved the laborer of 
much drudgery; made his work lighter and his hours of 
service shorter; stimulated his mental faculties; given 
equilibrium of effort to mind and body; made the laborer 
a more efficient worker, a broader man and a better 
citizen.'' 



APPENDIX A 
BOOKS ON AGRICULTURE 

RECOMMENDED FOR A COMMON-SCHOOL LIBRARY 

A. Primarily for Teachers — 

The Nature Study Idea, Bailey. (Doubleday, Page & Co.) 
Special Method in Elementary Science, McMurray. (Macmil- 

lan.) 
Principles of Agriculture, Bailey. (Macmillan.) 

B. For Teachers and Patrons — 

The Farmstead, Roberts. (Macmillan.) 

Rural Wealth and Welfare, Fairchild. (Macmillan.) 

C. Supplementary Texts on Agriculture — 

The First Book of Farming, Goodrich. (Doubleday, Page 

&Co.) 
Principles of Plant Culture, Goff. (University Cooperative 

Company, Madison, Wis.) 

D. Special Treatises and Books for Reference and General Reading — 

The Great World 's Farm, Gaye. (Greely & Co.) 

Plants and Animals Under Domestication, Darwin. (D. 

Appleton.) 
The Soil, King. (Macmillan.) 
Art Out-of-Doors, Van Rensselaer. (Scribner.) 
How to Plant the Home Grounds, Parsons. 
Disease in Plants, Ward. (Macmillan.) 
The Spraying of Plants, Loderman. (Macmillan.) 
Principles of Fruit Growing, Bailey. (Macmillan.) 
The Nursery Book, Bailey. (Macmillan.) 
The Pruning Book, Bailey. (Macmillan.) 
The Care of Animals, Mayo. (Macmillan.) 
Fertihzers, Voorhees. (Macmillan.) 
Breeds of Live Stock, Craig. 

Elements of the Theory and Practice of Cookery, 
The Book of Alfalfa, Corburn. (Orange Judd Co.) 
Farm Machinery, Davidson and Chase. (Orange Judd Co.) 

(278) 



APPENDIX B 



INSECTICIDES AND FUNGICIDES 

Bordeaux Mixture. This is the fungicide used every- 
where to reduce damage to fruits and vegetables caused 
by fungi. The proportions in which the substances 
are mixed are but rarely varied from the following: 

Copper Sulfate, or Bluestone : . 4 pounds 

Fresh lime 4 

Add water to make about 50 gallons 

In preparing, use two half-barrels, one for copper 
sulfate and one for Ume. Fig. 178. The copper sulfate 
should be pulverized and put in a coarse burlap sack 
and suspended in water until dissolved. Use wooden 
vessels only for copper 
sulfate. The fresh lime 

should be dissolved in Aii'T^ /f^ 

another vessel, using "^^ ^'* ^^^ 

only a small amount of 
water at first, adding 
more as the slaking pro- '"' ' 

gresses. Care should be ^^-/^< Vl \ \ '"'2^}!:'t^} 
taken to see that the I^i,„t \A iv ' I ' .' Xw '^•"'^•^ v 
lime is stirred into a ^==^=-<«^^'^^v..- '- 
very thin batter, free 

'^ Fig. 178. Making Bordeaux mixture. 

from even small lumps. 

It is advisable to strain through a burlap sack, or a 
copper strainer with eighteen or twenty meshes to the 
inch. Dilute the milk of Ume and the solution of copper 
sulfate up to about twenty-five gallons and mix. Do not 

(279) 




280 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 

attempt to pour the milk of lime into the copper sulfate, 
or the reverse, but pour together in equal quantities 
into a third vessel. 

Success in preparing Bordeaux mixture of uniform 
color and consistency will depend on the pureness 
of the substances and the manner of mixing. When 
properly prepared it has a sky-blue color. If the lime 
is not fresh, a greenish color sometimes results, which 
indicates that more hme is needed. It is advisable to 
have an excess of lime. Where plants with delicate 
foHage, like the peach, are to be sprayed, three times 
as much lime as copper sulfate is used. 

Insecticides With Bordeaux Mixture. It is often de- 
sirable to apply an insecticide at the same time a fungi- 
cide is applied, in order to obviate the necessity of two 
sprayings. This is often done when internal poisons', like 
Paris Green, London Purple, or Arsenate of Lead, are 
used. They may be added to the Bordeaux Mixture at the 
rate of one-fourth pound to fifty gallons of Bordeaux. 

Lime and Sulfur Preparations are much used to 
destroy scale insects. They act both as a fungicide and 
an insecticide, though their use is advisable only during 
the dormant season. The preparations in common use 
vary somewhat in detail. The following is often used: 

Fresh lime 15 to 30 pounds 

Flowers of sulfur 15 " 

Common salt 10 " 

Water to make 50 gallons 

When the lime is perfectly fresh, the smaller quantity 
named above will answer. 

To make the preparation, proceed as follows: Slake 
the lime with hot water, adding the water slowly until 
about ten gallons are used. Then add the sulfur and 



Appendix B 



281 



salt and stir until thoroughly mixed. Boil this mixture 
for from forty-five to sixty minutes to thoroughly 
dissolve the sulfur. The sulfur dissolves most easily 
in a thin milky solution of Ume, and, for this reason, 
no more water is used in dissolving the sulfur than is 
necessary to keep the mixture from becoming pasty. 
When the sulfur is thoroughly dissolved, pass the solu- 
tion through a strainer and dilute to the desired con- 
centration with hot water. The mixture should be pre- 
pared just as needed, and applied while still warm. 

Kerosene Preparations. Kerosene oil is an external 
irritant and is very effective in killing insects. It can 
not be applied to plants, however, in its crude form, 
without producing serious injury. Resort is had, there- 
fore, to various substances to dilute and carry the oil, 
such as soap-suds, milk, milk of lime, or even water 
alone, automatically mixed with the water in forming 
the spray. Kerosene preparations 
should be appHed to plants with great 
caution. They are ver}^ efficient in 
fighting certain injurious insects, but 
if not properly applied, serious injury 
to the plant may result. 

Kerosene Emulsion. Dissolve one 
pound of Naphtha soap in two and 
one-half gallons of water. Then add 
two and one-half gallons of kerosene 
to the solution and thoroughly mix by 
pumping the entire mixture through 
a bucket sprayer. Fig. 179. Now di- 
lute to from twenty to thirty gallons 
as desired. Apply while fresh. Used for scale and other 
sucking insects. 




Fig. 179. Hand bucket 
spray pump . A 
longer hose than that 
shown is needed for 
convenient using. 



282 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 

Paris Green is a standard poison for all insects that 
bite and swallow their food. It is heavy and, therefore, 
requires constant agitation to keep suspended in the 
spraying preparation. Paris Green is used at rate of 
about four ounces to fifty gallons of water. It is advisable 
to add some lime to the mixture to prevent injury to 
the foliage. It should be first worked into a paste 
before adding to a large quantity of water, whether 
used singly or in combination with Bordeaux Mixture. 

Arsenate of Lead. This is often preferred to Paris 
green because it is lighter, remains in suspension longer, 
and adheres to the foliage better. It is white in color 
and can be readily seen. Another important advantage 
claimed for Arsenate of Lead is that it is less liable to 
injure tender foliage. In its preparation use: 

Arsenate of soda 4 ounces 

Acetate of lead 11 " 

Water 16 gallons 

Dissolve the first tw^o separately in a small amount of 
water and then mix and add the full quantity of water. It 
may be purchased, prepared ready for use, at seed stores. 

Dust Applications of Insecticides are sometimes 
advisable. Special machines are on the market for 
applying both insecticides and fungicides in the form 
of dust. Dust applications have not been found so uni- 
formly satisfactory as the liquid applications. 

Spraying Domestic Animals with poisons is some- 
times recommended to kill insects, ticks and other 
parasites. Various preparations of oils and arsenical 
preparations are used. London Purple, dusted on the 
perches, nest and bodies of poultry, is a very satisfactory 
way to destroy mites on poultry. If applied regularly, 
it becomes a preventive. 



APPENDIX C 

Composition of American Feeding Stuffs 



Green Feeds, 

Corn fodder, whole plant . 

Kaffir corn fodder 

Sorghum fodder 

Kentucky Blue grass 

Johnson grass 

Alfalfa 

Cowpea 

Peanut Adnes 

Dry Hay and Fodders. 
Corn fodder, entire plant . 
Corn fodder, leaves only. . . 
Corn husks from ears .... 

Kaffir corn stover 

Hay from 

Oats 

Timothy 

Prairie grass 

Johnson grass 

Millet 

Mixed grasses 

Red clover 

Alfalfa, minimum 

Alfalfa, maximum 

Alfalfa, average 

Cowpea 

Peanut vines, without nuts 

Oat straw , 

Wheat straw 

Roots and Tubers. 

Sweet Potatoes 

Irish potatoes 

Sugar beets 

Turnips 

Carrots 



Pounds per hundred 



73.4 
73.0 
69.4 
65.1 

71.8 
83.6 



42.2 
30.0 
50.9 
19.2 

16.0 

13.2 

7.7 

9.9 

8.8 

15.3 

20.8 

4.6 

16.0 

8.4 

10.7 

7.6 

9.2 

9.6 



71.1 

78.9 
86.7 
90.6 

88.6 



1.5 
2.0 

1.8 

2.8 

2.7 
1.7 



2.7 
5.5 

1.8 

8.0 

6.1 
4.4 
6.4 
5.7 

10.1 
5.5 
6.6 
3.1 

10.4 
7.4 
7.5 

10.8 
5.1 
4.2 



1.0 
1.0 
0.8 
0.8 
1.0 



2.0 
2.3 
1.6 
4.1 

4.8 
2.4 



4.5 
6.0 
2.5 

4.8 

7.4 

5.9 

3.8 

12.8 

11.1 

7.4 

12.4 

10.2 

20.3 

14.3 

16.6 

10.7 

4.0 

3.4 



1.5 
2.1 
1.5 
1.3 
1.1 



6.7 
6.9 



9.1 



7.4 

4.8 



14.3 
21.4 
15.8 
26.8 

27.2 
29.0 
34.8 
29.1 
32.1 
27.2 
21.9 
14.0 
33.0 
25.0 
20.1 
23.6 
37.0 
38.1 



1.3 
0.6 
0.9 
1.2 
1.3 



OX 



15.5 
15.1 
16.8 
17.6 

12.3 
7.1 



34.7 
35.7 
28.3 
30.6 

40.6 
45.0 
45.7 
39.8 
34.8 
42.1 
33.8 
35.1 
53.6 
42.7 
42.2 
42.7 
42.4 
43.4 



24.7 

17.3 

9.9 

5.9 

7.6 



0.9 
0.7 
1.6 
1.3 

1.0 
0.4 



1.6 
1.4 
0.7 
1.6 

2.7 
2.5 
1.5 
2.7 
2.9 
2.5 
4.5 
1.1 
3.8 
2.2 
2.9 
4.6 
2.3 
1.8 



0.4 
0.1 
0.1 
0.2 
0.4 



(283) 



APPENDIX D 

Per Cent of Digestible Nutrients in Stock Feeds 



Timothy, green Steers 

Timothy, green Horse 

Timothy, hay, dry 

Mixed hay 

Oat straw 

Oat straw 

Johnson grass, dry 

Corn fodder, leaves 

Corn shucks 

Alfalfa hay 

Corn, unground Horse 

Corn meal Horse 

Corn, unground Swine 

Corn, groimd Swine 

Corn meal Sheep 

Corn meal Cows 

Oats, imground Horse 

Oats, ground Horse 

Wheat bran Swine 

Wheat bran Sheep 

Wheat bran Steers 

Cotton-seed hulls Cow 

Cotton-seed hulls Goats 

Cotton-seed meal Goat 

Cotton-seed meal Cow 

Cotton seed, raw 

Cotton seed, roasted 

Potatoes, raw 

Potatoes, boiled 

Sugar beets 

Turnips 



Digestion coefficients 



a 
>-. 

_Q 

% 
63.5 
43.5 
53.4 



oS 



% 
65.6 
44.1 
54.5 



50.3 
56.5 
59.8 
72.0 
58.9 
74.4 
88.4 
82.5 
89.5 
89.6 
84.6 
72.4 
75.7 
65.8 
58.7 
67.3 
35.9 
38.6 
65.9 
77.9 
66.1 
55.9 
75.7 
80.1 
94.5 
92.8 



52.0 
58.3 
63.6 
74.2 
60.7 
75.3 

83;4 
91.2 
90.7 

82.8 
74.1 

77.7 

61 !6 
68.6 
36.2 
39.8 
69.5 
80.0 
65.8 
56.8 
77.0 
81.2 
98.7 
96.1 



% 
32.2 
34.1 
30.3 



30.5 
26.8 
16.0 
39.5 
26.3 



49.5 

33!i 
29.2 

i7!3 
47.1 
27.1 
20.9 
19.8 
35.0 
43.3 



31.9 

58.6 



% 
48.1 
21.2 
45.1 
48.0 
38.- 

4i!4 
48.4 
29.5 
72.0 
57.8 
75.6 
68.7 
86.1 
76.9 
58.3 
86.1 
82.4 
75.1 
70.2 
82.3 
24.6 

seis 

89.8 
67.8 
46.9 
44.7 
43.4 
91.3 
89.7 



% 
55.6 
42.6 
47.1 
48.0 
58.0 
57.6 
65.7 
67.5 
79.5 
46.0 



38.3 
29.4 



31.1 
14.4 
33.0 
16.1 
25.1 
27.4 
45.2 
46.8 

75!5 
65.9 



100.0 
100.0 



OX 
h as 



% 
65.7 
47.3 
60.4 
57.0 
53.0 
53.2 
56.9 
63.0 
75.0 
69.2 
88.2 
95.7 
88.8 
94.2 
95.3 
87.1 
79.4 
86.3 
65.5 
67.2 
74.6 
40.3 
37.4 
43.8 
68.1 
49.6 
51.4 
90.4 
92.1 
99.7 
96.5 



% 
53.1 
47.3 
51.9 
50.0 
38.0 
38.0 
38.4 
59.9 
32.5 
51.0 
47.7 
73.1 
45.6 
81.7 
98.1 
91.9 
82.4 
79.9 
71.8 
72.1 
54.7 
80.6 
87.1 
92.4 
89.4 
87.1 
71.7 
13.0 

49.9 

87.5 



(284) 



APPENDIX E 

Average Digestible Nutrients and Fertilizing Constituents in 

Stock Feeds 






Green Feeds. 

Corn fodder, entire 

plant 

Kaffir corn fodder .... 
Sorghum fodder. . . . . 

Johnson grass 

Red clover 

Cowpea vines 

Alfalfa 

Peanut vines 



Dry Fodders and Hat 

Corn stover 

Kaffir corn stover 
Sorghum stover 
.Johnson grass . . . 

Red clover 

Cowpea vine hay 
Alfalfa hay .... 
Peanut vine hay 
Wheat straw . . . 

Oat straw 

Hay, mixed grasse; 

Grains and Seeds. 
Corn, whole grain 

Corn meal 

Kaffir corn 

Oats 

Wheat, all varieties 
Wheat bran .... 
Wheat middlings 
Wheat shorts . . 

Cotton seed 

Cotton-seed meal 
Cotton-seed hulls 



Root Crops. 
Irish potatoes. 

Turnips 

Carrots 

Beets 



20.7 
27.0 
30.6 

29!2 
16.4 

28.2 



59.5 

80.8 



84.7 
89.3 
91.6 

90.4 
90.8 
87.1 



89.1 
89.1 

87.5 
89.0 
89.5 
88.1 
87.9 
88.2 
89.7 
91.5 
89.5 



21.1 

9.5 

11.4 

13.0 



Digestible nutrients in 
100 pounds 



iFertilizing consti- 
! tuents in 100 
I pounds 



3.07 
1.68 
3.89 



1.98 

1.82 



7.38 
10.79 
10..58 

'o!37 
1.20 
5.90 

8.00 

5.78 
9.25 
10.23 
12.20 
12.80 
12.22 
11.08 
38.10 
0..30 

1.36 
0.81 
0.81 
1.21 



1 «J 
II 



1.10 12.08 
0.87 13.80 
0.70 17.60 



14.82 

8.08 

11.20 



32.16 
41.42 



38.15 
.38.40 
37.33 

36130 
38.64 
40.90 



0.37 
0.43 
0.20 

0".69 
0.25 
0.41 



0.57 
0.98 



1.81 
1.54 
1.38 

OAO 
0.76 
1.20 



65.90 4.60 



53.58 
48.34 
69.21 
39.20 
53.00 
49.98 
.33.13 
16.00 
32.90 

16.43 
6.46 

7.83 
8.84 



1.33 
4.18 
1.68 
2.70 
3.40 
3.88 
18.44 
12.60 
1.70 



0.11 
0.22 
0.05 



26.076 0.30 
29.101 
0.30 



36.187 0.54 
19.209 0.27 
29.798 h 



67.766 
84.562 



1.10 



92.324 0.54 
97.865 2.66 
94.9.36 

69^894 1 6.60 
77.310 0.46 
93.925 1.40 



1.57.237 1.58 

116.022 
124.757 
154.848 
111.138 
136.996 
131.855 
160.047 
1.52.6,53 
69.839' 0.69 



1.65 



2.67 
2.63 



6.90 



o 

a- 3 



0.15 
0.09 



33.089 I 0.24 
13.986 I 0.19 
16.999 I 
18.904 I 



0.15 
0.10 



0.29 



0.15 
0.52 



0.22 
0.28 
0.27 

0.57 

0.69 

2.89 
0.95 



3.00 
0.25 



0.08 
0.09 



(285) 



286 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 

Composition of American Feeding Stuffs, continued 



Grains and Seeds, 

Corn, minimum 

Corn, maximum 

Corn, average 

Kaffir corn 

Barley 

Oats 

Svniflower seed 

Cotton-seed, whole 

Cotton seed, hulls 

Cotton-seed meal 

Peanut hulls 

Peanut, kernel only 

Cowpeas 

By-Products of Mills. 

Corncob 

Gem from corn 

Gem meal from corn 

Wheat bran 

Wheat middlings 

Wheat shorts 

Rice bran 

Dairy Products. 

Whole milk 

Skim milk, gravity creaming . . , 

Skim milk, separator 

Buttermilk 

Whey 

By-Products, Packery. 

Dried blood 

Meat scraps 

Tankage 



Pounds per hundred 



6.2 

19.4 

10.6 

12.5 

10.9 

11.0 

8.6 

5.8 

11.1 

8.2 

9.0 

7.5 

11.9 



10.7 
10.7 

8.1 
11.9 
12.1 
11.8 

9.7 



87.2 
99.4 
90.6 
91.0 
93.8 



92.0 
78.0 
92.0 



1.0 
2.6 
1.5 
1.3 
2.4 
3.0 
2.6 
2.9 
2.8 
7.8 
3.4 
2.4 
3.4 



1.4 
4.0 
1.3 
5.8 
3.3 
4.6 
10.0 



0.7 
0.7 
0.7 
0.7 
0.4 



17.39 



7.5 
11.8 
10.3 
10.9 
12.4 
11.8 
16.3 
14.5 

4.2 
42.3 

6.6 
27.9 
23.5 



2.4 
9.8 
11.1 
15.4 
15.6 
14.9 
12.1 



3.6 
3.3 
3.2 
3.0 
0.6 



87.0 
49.72 
60.0 







u 




a; 




Xi 


ox 






s 






'^^ 






0.9 


65.9 


4.8 


75.7 


2.2 


70.4 


1.9 


70.5 


2.7 


69.8 


9.5 


59.7 


29.9 


21.4 


10.9 


17.3 


46.3 


33.4 


5.6 


23.6 


64.3 


15.1 


7.0 


15.6 


3.8 


55.7 


30.1 


54.9 


4.1 


64.0 


9.9 


62.5 


9.0 


53.9 


4.6 


60.4 


7.4 


56.8 


49.5 


49.9 




4.9 




4.7 




5.2 




4.8 




5.1 



3.1 
7.5 
5.0 
2.9 
1.8 
5.0 

21.2 

15.3 
2.2 

13.1 
1.6 

39.6 
1.7 



0.5 
7.4 
7.1 
4.0 
4.0 
4.5 
8.8 



3.7 
0.9 
0.3 
0.5 
0.1 



18.51 
8.0 



APPENDIX F 

Standard Feeding Rations 

Approximate requirements of nutrients for a clay's feeding per 1,000 

pounds live weight 






s 

>. 

■-. 


Digestible nutrients 


9 

o Fuel value 








6^ 


1 


> 

it 


Oxen — 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 




At rest in stall 


18 


0.7 


8.0 


0.1 


16,600 


1:11.6 


At light work 


22 


! 1.4 


10.0 


0.3 


22,500 


1:9.3 


At heavy work 


28 


' 2.8 


13.0 


0.8 


32,755 


1:5.0 


Dairy cattle, in milk — 














Giving 11 pounds milk a day 


25 


1.6 


10.0 


0.3 


22,850 


1:6.8 


Giving 16.5 pounds milk a day. . . . 


27 


2.0 


11.0 


0.4 


25,850 


I 1:5.4 


Giving 22 pounds milk a day 


29 


2.5 


13.0 


0.5 


30,950 


1:5.6 


Giving 27.5 pounds milk a day. . . . 


32 


3.3 


13.0 


0.8 


33,700 


1:4.5 


Cattle, growing age- 














About 150 lbs., 2 to 3 months . . . 


23 


4.0 


13.0 


2.0 


40,050 


1:3.4 


About 300 lbs., 3 to 6 months 


24 


3.0 


12.0 


1.0 


33,600 


1 :4.7 


About 500 lbs., 6 to 12 months . . . 


27 


2.0 


12.5 


0.5 


29,100 


1:6.8 


About 700 lbs., 12 to 18 months . . 


26 


1.8 


12.5 


0.4 


28,300 


1:7.5 


About 900 tt3s., 18 to 24 months . . 


26 


1.5 


12.0 


0.3 


26,350 


1:8.4 


Sheep— 














Heavv fleeced breeds 


23 


1.5 


12.0 


0.3 


26 400 


1 :8.5 


Ewes, with lambs 


25 


2.9 


15.0 


0.5 


35 400 


1:5.5 


Growing, wool breeds — 














60 to 75 lbs., 4 to 8 months 


25 


3.2 


14.0 


0.7 


35,500 


1:4.9 


80 to 90 lbs., 8 to 15 months . . . 


23 


2.0 


11.3 


0.4 


26,000 


1:6.1 


Growing, mutton breeds — 














60 to 80 lbs., 4 to 8 months .... 


26 


4.0 


15.0 


0.7 


38,000 


1:4.1 


100 to 150 lbs., 8 to 15 months . 


23 


2.2 


13.0 


0.5 


30,000 


1:6.4 


Swine — 














Growing, breeding stock — 














50 to 100 lbs., 2 to 5 months . . . 


40 


6.5 


25.5 


0.9 


60,000 


1:4.0 


120 to 200 lbs., 5 to 8 months . . 


30 


3.8 


20.0 


0.4 


45,000 


1:5.5 


200 to 250 fts., 8 to 12 months . 


26 


3.0 


17.0 


0.2 


35,000 


1:5.8 


Growing, fattening — 














About 50 lbs., 2 to 3 months . . . 


44 


7.6 


28.0 , 


1.0 


70,000 


1:3.7 


About 100 lbs., 3 to 5 months . . 


35 


5.0 


23.0 i 


0.8 


55,650 


1:4.7 


About 150 lbs., 5 to 6 months . . 


33 


4.3 


22.3 


0.6 


52,000 i 


1:5.4 


About 200 lbs., 6 to 8 months . . 


30 


3.6 


20.5 


0.4 


46,500 


1:5.9 


About 275 fts., 9 to 12 months . 


26 


3.0 


18.3 


0.3 


40,900 


1:6.3 



(287) 



APPENDIX G 

Standard Feeding Rations 
Approximate requirements of nutrients per day per head 





< 


ll 

if 


Digestible nutrients 








1 
£ 

Ah 


Carbon- 
hydrate 

Fat 


> 

11 




Months 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. Lbs. 


Calories 




Growing cattle 


2-3 


150 


0.60 


2.10 0.300 


6,288 


1:4.6 




3-6 


300 


1.00 


4.10 0.300 


10,752 


1:4.7 




6-12 


500 


1.30 


6.80 0.300 


16,332 


1:5.3 




12-18 


700 


1.40 


9.10 0.280 


30,712 


1:6.8 




18-24 


850 


1.40 


10.30 0.260 


22,859 


1:7.7 


Growing sheep 


5-6 


56 


0.18 


0.87 0.045 


2,143 


1.5.4 




6-8 


67 


0.17 


0.85 0.040 


2,066 


1:5.4 




8-11 


75 


0.16 


0.85 0.037 


2,035 


1:6.0 




11-15 


82 


0.14 


0.89 .032 


2,050 


1:7.0 




15-20 
2-3 


85 
50 


0.12 
0.38 


0.88 0.025 


1,956 
3,497 


1:8.0 


Gro\\-ing fat swine .... 


1.50 


1:4.0 




3-5 


100 


0.50 


2.50 


5,580 


1:5.0 




5-6 


125 


0.54 


2.96 


6,510 


1:5.5 




6-8 


170 


0.58 


3.47 


7,533 


1:6.0 




8-12 


250 


0.62 


4.05 


8,686 


1 :6.3 



(288) 



APPENDIX H 

GLOSSARY 

Abdomen. That part of an animal's body containing the digestive 

organs; the part of an insect lying behind the thorax. 
Acid. A sour substance, such as vinegar, and lemon juice. 
^Esthetic. Appealing to the faculties of taste, as in form, color, etc. 
Agriculture. Farming. 

Agronomy. Of, or pertaining to, field crops. 
Air-dry. Dried in air at ordinary temperatures. 
Albumin. A substance found in plants and animals, rich in nitrogen. 

The white of an egg is a good example. 
Alga. A green plant of simple structure, such as pond scum. 
Ameliorate. To improve; make better. 
Amendment. Substances which improve the productiveness of soils 

without being used directly as a plant food. 
Ammonia. A compound of nitrogen readily usable as plant food. 
Animal Husbandry. Raising and caring for animals. 
Annual. A plant that bears seed during the first year of its existence 

and then dies. 
Anther. The part of a stamen that bears the pollen. 
Antiseptic. Substances which kill germs or microbes. 
Art. The skillful and systematic arrangement or adaptation of 

means for the attainment of some end. 
Ash. The mineral substance left when plant or animal substances 

are burned. 
Assimilation. The absorption of digested nutrients into the body 

substance. Also sometimes used as synonymous with carbon 

assimilation. 
Atmospheric Nitrogen. Free nitrogen of the air. 
Available. Said of fertilizing mineral nutrients in the soil when they 

are in a condition to be absorbed. 
Axils. Angle above the junction of a leaf-stalk with the parent stem. 
Babcock Tester. Instrument used for determining the amount of 

butter-fat in milk. 

s (289) 



290 Eleme7itary Principles of Agriculture 

Bacteria. A name applied to a class of very small parasitic plants. 

There are many kinds, most of which are beneficial to man. 

Some species are the cause of disease in man and the higher 

animals or plants. 
Biennial. A plant that grows during the first year, and forms seeds, 

and dies the year following, such as turnips, beets. 
Bioplasm. The living substance of cells. See Protoplasm. 
Blight. A diseased condition of plants in which the entire plant 

or some part withers and dries up. 
Bordeaux Mixture. A mixture of lime and copper sulphate (blue- 
stone), used to prevent fungus diseases on plants. It takes its 

name from Bordeaux, France, where it was first used. 
Botany. The science that deals with plants. 
Breeding. Plant-breeding; animal-breeding. The practice of 

selecting out the best individvials for propagation. 
Bud (noun). An undeveloped branch. 

Bud (verb). To insert a bud, as in the practice of budding. 
Bud Variation. Where a bud produces a bran'ch that possesses 

characteristics different from the parent plant. New forms 

originating in this way are called sports. 
Bulb. A stem with thickened leaves overlapping one another, as in 

the onion, Easter lily, etc. 
Calcareous. Limy, or having the properties of lime. 
Calcium. A chemical element giving limestone its distinctive prop- 
erties. 
Callus. The growth of extra tissue over cut or wounded places on 

plants. 
Calyx. The outermost circle of leaves in a flower. 
Cambium. The growing layer of cells lying between the bark and 

the wood. 
Cannon. The shank bone above the fetlock in the fore and hind legs 

of the horse. 
Capillary. 
Capillarity. 
Carbon. The principal chemical element in plants. Charcoal and 

graphite are forms. 
Carbon Assimilation. The process carried on in the cells of green 

plants in assimilating the carbon of the carbon dioxid of the air. 
Carbon Dioxid. A gas formed whenever substances containing 

carbon are burned. 



Appendix H 291 

Carbon Bisulphide. A chemical compound of carbon and sulphur. 

A heavy inflammable liquid used to kill insects in stored grain. 
Carbohydrate., Compound of carbon with water, such as sugar, 

starch, wood fiber, etc. They form the largest part of plant 

substance. 
Carnivorous. Feeding on flesh. 
Casein. Milk curd, the most important albuminoid in milk and 

cheese. 
Catch Crop. A crop grown during an interval between harvest of 

regular crops. 
Cellulose. The principal carbohydrate in wood fibers, such as cotton, 

flax, wood pulp. 
Cereal. The name given to the grasses cultivated for their grain, 

as corn, wheat, kaffir corn. 
Chemistry. The science that deals with the properties of the elements 

and their compounds. 
Chlorophyll. The green coloring-matter to which plants owe their 

characteristic color. 
Cion. A part of a plant inserted in another with the intention that 

it shall grow. 
Climatology. The knowledge and science of weather. It includes 

the science of weather (local climate) and meteorology. 
Coming True. Reproducing the variety characters. 
Compost. Rotted organic matter, plant or animal. 
Concentrates. A term used to designate feeding substances that are 

almost wholly digestible, as corn, bran, mill products. 
Contagious. A disease is said to be contagious when it can be carried 

from one individual to another. 
Corolla. The second circle of leaf-like parts of a flower. The corolla 

is usually colored. 
Cotyledons. The primary or seed-leaves of an embryo plant. 
Cover Crop. A catch-crop designed to cover the ground during the 

fall, winter or spring to prevent washing. 
Cross. The individual resulting from breeding two varieties together. 
Cross-Pollination. The pollination of a flower by pollen from another 

plant. 
Croup (crop). The top of the hips. 
Cutting. A part of a stem or root put into the soil or other medium 

with the intention that it shall grow and make another plant. 
Dependent Plants. Plants that do not have the power of making 



292 Elemental'}! Principles of Agriculture 

their own food products; i. e., incapable of carbon assimilation. 

Digestion. The process of converting the insokible substances of 

foods into sohible materials, preparatory to absorption into 

the blood. 

Drainage. Removing surplus water from the soil, either by ditches, 

terraces or tiles. 
Ecology. The science which treats of the inter-relationships between 
animals and plants, and their environments. The study of the 
modes and conditions of life of plants and animals, — a very 
important phase of agricultural science. 
Element. A substance that has only one form of matter. An original 

form of matter. 
Emulsion. A more or less permanent and complete mixture of oils 

or fats and water. Fresh milk is an excellent illustration. 
Endosperm. Reserve food in seeds stored outside of the embryo. 
Energy. Power; force. Every movement of, or change of body, 
expends energy. The energy of sunlight may be expressed in 
sunlight heat, or other form of energy. 
Ensilage, Green foods preserved in a silo. 
Entomology. Science of insects. 

Erosion. Wearing away. Denudings, as of rocks or soils. 
Ether Extract. A term used in feed analyses to describe the substances 

removed by ether — usually oils. 
Evolution. The doctrine that present forms of plants and animals 
are descended from previous forms. A theory of the origin of 
forms of living organisms. 
Farming. The practice of raising crops and animals. 
Farmstead. A farm home or establishment. 
Fecundation. The union of male and female cells. 
Fermentation. A chemical change produced by bacteria, yeast, 
etc. Example, souring of milk. The decay of any organic 
substance is due to a form of fermentation. 
Fertilization. Used in the same sense as fecundation. 
Fertilizer. A substance added to the soil to improve its productive- 
ness, as compost. Some fertilizers are known as amendments, 
which see. 
Fetlock. The long-haired cushion on the back side of a horse's leg, 

just above the hoof. 
Fiber. Any fine thread-like substance, as the wood fibers of stems, 
cotton fiber, etc. 



Appendix H 293 

Fibro-vascular Bundle. The bundles of wood fibers and water- 
conducting vessels in the stems and leaves of plants. 

Flocculate. To make granular. 

Floral Envelope. The collective term for the calyx and corolla. 

Fodder. Any coarse dry food for animals. 

Forage. Plants fed to animals in their natural condition; i. e., 
without preparation. 

Formalin. A solution in water of the gas known as formaldehyde. 
It is used to destroy bacteria, fungi, etc. 

Function. The particular use of any organ or part. 

Fungicide. Substances used to kill fungi, as compounds of copper. 

Geology. The science that deals with the formation and properties 
of the earth. 

Germ. See Microorganism; bacteria. Also appHed to the embryo 
of seeds, as in corn. 

Germination. To sprout; to grow from a seed. 

Girdle. To make a cut or groove around a tree or branch. 

Glucose. A kind of sugar, very common in plants. The sugar 
from grapes is glucose, but the sugar from cane and beets 
is not. Glucose is formed from starch in the manufacture of 
syrups. 

Gluten. A form of protein found in plants. 

Grafting. The practice of inserting a cion into a plant or root that 
it may grow. 

Growth. The increase in size or substance of a plant or animal. 

Gypsum. Same as Plaster of Paris. 

Herbivorous. Feeding on plants. 

Heredity. The resemblance of offspring to parents. 

Hibernating. Passing the winter or dormant season in an inactive 
or torpid state in confined quarters. 

Hock. The joint in the hind legs of quadrupeds corresponding to 
the ankle of man. 

Horticulture. Pertaining to the growing of fruits, vegetables, flow- 
ers, and other ornamental plants. 

Host. The plant or animal upon which a fungus or insect lives. 

Humus (or humous). Partly decayed or rotten remains of plants 
and animals. 

Husbandry. Farming. 

Hybrid. The progeny resulting from the crossing of two kinds of 
plants, either varieties or species. 



294 Elcmentarij Principles of Agriculture 

Hydrogen. A chemical element. It is present in water and all living 

substances. 
Hygroscopic. ' Holding moisture as a film on the surface. 
Hypha (])lural, hypha^). The separate threads of the plant body of 

fungi. 
Inoculate. . To infect with a disease. 
Inorganic. Matter which has not been elaborated into plant or animal 

substance. 
Insectivorous. Eating insects. 
Insecticide. A poison used to kill insects. 
Internode. The space between two nodes of a stem. 
Inter-tillage. Tillage between plants. 
Kainit. A salt of potash used in making fertilizers. 
Kernel. A single seed, as a grain of corn, wheat, etc. 
Kerosene Emulsion. See Appendix B. 
Larva (plural, larvae). The worm-like stage in the development 

of insects. 
Layer. A part of a plant that has been bent down and covered with 

soil to stimulate the formation of roots. After the roots are 

formed, it is separated from the parent plant. 
Legume. A plant belonging to the same family of plants as the pea, 

bean, alfalfa, clovers, etc. 
Lichen. A kind of fungus plant that grows associated with algae. 

Very common on stones and bark of trees. 
Loam. An earthy mixture of sand and clay, with some organic 

matter. 
Magnesia. A substance containing the chemical element magnesium. 

It is similar to lime. 
Microbe. A general term applied to all plants or animals that are 

so small that they may be seen only by aid of the microscope. 
Mildew. A cobwebby fungus on the surface of diseased or decaying 

things. 
Mold, or Mould. I'sed in the same way. IMold occurs only on dead 

substances. 
Mulch. A loose covering of straw, leaves, or soil, to retard evapora- 
tion from the soil. 
Nitrate. A compound having NO3 combined with a basic mineral 

substance; a salt of nitric acid. 
Nitrification. The changing of nitrogen into nitrates. 
Nitrogen. A gaseous chemical element composing 79 per cent of the 



Appendix H 295 

air. It forms a constituent of the more expensive mineral plant- 
foods. A constituent of ammonia, albumen, proteids and all 
living substances. 

Node. The place on a stem where the leaves and branches originate. 

Nutrient. A substance which serves as a food. 

Organic. Of or belonging to living things. Organic matter has been 
formed from simple chemical compounds and exist in nature 
only as formed by animals or plants. 

Osmosis. The movement of a liquid through a membrane. 

Ovary. The part of the pistil that bears the seeds. 

Ovule. The parts inside of the ovary that grow into seeds. 

Ornithology. Science of birds. 

Oxygen. A gaseous element composing about one-fifth of the air. 

Oxidation. Combining with oxygen, as in the rusting of iron, burn- 
ing of wood. 

Parasite. Dependent plants or animals drawing their food from other 
living plants or animals. Compare with Saprophyte. 

Pedigree. A record of one's ancestors. 

Perennial. Plants that live from year to year, as trees. 

Petal. Parts of the corolla of flowers. 

Phloem. That part of a stem through which the reserve food moves . 
In plants with netted veined leaves it is just outside of the 
cambium. 

Phosphate. A salt of phosphoric acid. The bones of animals and the 
shells of oysters are composed of phosphates. 

Photosynthesis. Same as Carbon Assimilation. 

Physiology. The science that treats of the life processes. It treats 
of organs and their uses. 

Pistil. The part of a flower containing the embryo seeds. 

Plumule. The shoot end of an embryo plant. 

Pollination. The act of carrying pollen from anther to stigma. It 
is usually done by the wind or insects. 

Pollen. The powdery mass borne by anthers. It is necessary for 
ihe formation of seeds. 

Potash. A substance containing potassium. 

Predaceous. Living by prejang, or pillaging. Said of insects that 
attack and destroy other kinds. 

Protoplasm. The hving substance. "The physical basis of life." 

Proteids. Organic substances rich in nitrogen. 

Ration. A dailv allowance of food for an animal. 



296 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 

Rotation (of crops). A systematic order of succession of crops on 

the same land. 
Roughage. Dry, coarse fodders. 
Sap. The watery sokitions in plants. 
Saprophyte. Living on dead organic matter. 

Scion. A shoot, sprout or branch taken to graft onto another plant. 
Science. ''Systematized common sense." Knowledge gained and 

verified by exact observation and correct thinking. Knowledge 

deals with simple facts, without reference to inter-relations. 

Art refers to something to be done. Science to something to 

be known. 
Sepals. The segments of the calyx. 

Silage. Green feed cut up and preserved without loss of succulence. 
Silo. A place for keeping silage. 
Smut. A term to designate the fungi that produce the blasting of 

the fruits and leaves of plants. 
Soil. That part of the earth's crust permeated by the roots of plants. 
Soiling. The practice of feeding green plants in the stables. 
Spiracle. Breathing pores of an insect's body. 
Spore. The one-celled reproductive body of the lower plants. 
Sport. A marked variation from the parents that appears suddenly. 
Stamen. The part of a flower bearing the anthers with pollen. 
Starch. A carbohydrate found in plants. 

Sterilize. To destroy all the germs or spores in or on anything. 
Sterile Plants. Plants that do not set seed. 
Stigma. The part of a pistil that receives the pollen. 
Stover. 
Stoma (plural, stomata). The minute openings in the epidermis 

of leaves. 
Subsoil. The layer of soil below the surface layer of cultivated soils. 
Superphosphate. Phosphates that have been treated with sulphuric 

acid to render the phosphates available. 
Thorax. The middle part of an insect's body. 
Tillage. The act of preparing the ground to receive the seed and the 

cultivation of the plants. 
Tuber. A thickened underground stem, as an Irish potato. 
Tubercle. A small wart-like growth on the roots of legumes, caused 

by the nitrogen-fixing bacteria. 
Variety. A kind or sort of plant. 
Viable. Capable of germinating. Having life. 



Appendix H 297 

Vigor. Referring to the rapidity of growth, without reference to 

hardiness. 
Vital. Of, or pertaining to hving things. 
Water-Table. The hne of free water in the soil. 
Weathering. The action of moisture, air, frost, upon rocks, etc. 
Weed. A plant where it is not wanted. 
Wilt. Used synonymous with blight. 
Zoology. The science that treats of animals. 



INDEX 



Aberdeen-Angus, 271. 

Absorption of Water by Root-Hairs, 
22. 

Absorption of Water by Seeds, 24. 

Absorption of Water by Soils, 24. 

Absorption of Water, Effect on Germi- 
nation, 24, 25. 

Advantages of South, 349. 

Agriculture, Books on, Appendix A. 

Algse, Fo&d of, 11. 

Amount of Feed, 33S. 

Angora Goats, 306. 

Animal Body, Nutrition of, 322. 

Animals, Destroy In.sects, 257. 

Animals, Healthfulne.ss of, 360. 

Animals. Herbivorous, 326. 

Animal Husbandry, 258. 

Animal Husbandry. Advantages of, 
261. 

Animals, Ruminating, 327. 

Animals, Shelter for, 347. 

Application of Ratios, 334. 

Arsenate of Lead, Appendix B. 

Artificial Incubation, 309. 

BabcockTest, 351. 

Bacon Hogs, 297. 

Balanced Rations, Economy of, 335. 

Beef Breeds, 268. 

Berkshire Hogs, 300. 

Birds, 249. 

Birds, Beneficial, 251. 

Birds, Feeding Habits, 254, 255. 

Birds, Food of, 250. 

Bird Houses, 256. 

Birds, Migration of, 253. 

Books on Agriculture, Appendix A. 

Bordeaux Mixture, Appendix B. 

Breed, 266, 267. 

Butter, Judging, 366. 

Callus, 59. 

Callus, Growth of, 64. 



Cambium, 58. 

Carbon Assimilation, 47, 48, 50. 

Carbon Dioxid, 29. 

Capillary Attraction, 71. 

Capillary Water. 100. 

Capillary Water, Amount of, 100. 

Care in Milking, 363. 

Care of Horses, 293. 

Care of Young Poultry, 320. 

Catch-Crops, 144. 

Caterpillar, 226, 237. 

Cells, 13. 

Cellular Structure, 13. 

Cell- Wall, 8. 

Chickens, Barred Plymouth Rock, 317. 

Chickens, Egg Breeds, 227. 

Chickens, Light Brahma, 316. 

Chickens, General-Purpose Breeds, 

317. 
Chickens, Meat Breeds, 316. 
Chickens, White Leghorn, 314. 
ChiU Saltpeter, 121. 
Churning, 365. 
Clarification of Milk, 368. 
Clay, 89. 

Cleanliness of Stable, 362. 
Clydesdale Horses, 288. 
Coach Horses, 289. 
Coldframes, 36. 
Composition of Plants, 45. 
Compost, 123. 

Compounds of Elements, 40. 
Concentrated Foods, 339. 
Cover Crops, 144. 
Cross-Fertilization, 173. 
Creaming, Centrifugal, 358. 
Creaming, GraWty, 357. 
Cultivation, Effect of, 214. 
Cultivation of Soil. (See Tilth.) 
Culture, Objects of, 7. 
Cuttage, 195. 



Dairy Breeds, 272. 



(299) 



300 



Index 



Dairy Cow, Distinctive Quality of, 

350. 
Dairy Cows, How Valued, 352. 
Dairy Products, Sanitary, 359. 
Dairying, 348. 

Decoration of Landscape, 369. 
Denitrification, 129. 
Dependent Plants, 12. 
Digestible Nutrients, Ratio of, 333. 
Digestibility of Feeds, 331. 
Digestibility of Nutrients, 332. 
Digestion of Fowls, 325. 
Digestive Tract of Domestic Animals, 

324. 
Disease, Due to Fungi, 215. 
Disease, Due to Insects, 146. 
Domesticated Plants, 202. 
Drainage, 107. 

Drainage Waters, Plant Food in, 112. 
Driving Horses, 290. 
Drouth, 136. 
Drouth Limit, 102. 
Drouth-Resistant, 55. 
Dry-Land Farming, 97. 
Duroc-Jersey Hogs, 298. 
Dust Applications, Appendix C. 

Economy of Balanced Rations, 335. 

Eggs, Preserving, 313. 

Element, 39. 

Elements, Essential, 43, 109. 

Elements, in Plants, 41. 

Elements, Non-Essential, 44. 

Environment, 6. 

Environment of Roots, 66. 

Epidermis, 47. 

Essential Elements, 109. 

Essential Elements, Soils Deficient in, 

138. 
Evaporation, from Soils, 95c. 

Farm Conditions, Changes in, 398. 

Farm Dairying, 348. 

Farm Lot, 371. 

Farm Machinery, 391, 394. 

Farm Wood-Lot, 388. 

Feed, Amount of, 338. 

Feeding Poultry, 311. 

Feeds, Preparation of, 342. 



Feeding Rations, Standard, Appen- 
dixes F and G. 

Feeding Stuffs, Composition of, Ap- 
pendix C. 

Feeding, Skill in, 345. 

Feeds, Digestibility of, 331. 

Feeds, Fuel Value of, 330. 

Feeds, Nutrients in, 328. 

Fertilization of Flowers, 169. 

Fertilizer, Quantity of, 111. 

Fertilizers, 110. 

Fertilizers, Kinds of, 118. 

Fertihzing, 132. 

Fertihzing, Effect of, 115. 

Fibro- Vascular Bundles, 57. 

Flower-Buds, 156. 

Flower-Buds, Formation of, 158,159. 

Flower-Buds, To Distinguish, 157. 

Flowers, 163. 

Flowers, Names of Parts, 165. 

Flowers, Structure of, 164. 

Flowers, Use of Parts, 167. 

Food of Hogs, 294. 

Food, Palatability of, 340. 

Foods, Concentrated, 339. 

Foods, Roughage, 339. 

Forest, 381. 

Forest, Conserving of, 385. 

Forest, Exhaustion- of, 384. 

Forest, Need of, 382. 

Forest Reserves, 386. 

Forest Service, 387. 

Forestry, Systematic, 383. 

Fowls, Digestion by, 325. 

Fuel Value of Feeds, 330. 

Functions of Nutrients, 329. 

Fungi, 9. 

Fungi, Food of, 8, 9a, 216. 

Fungicides, Appendix B. 

Fungicides, 219. 

Fungus Diseases, 215. 

Fungus Diseases, Preventing, 219 

Gardens, Individual, 379. 
Garden Plans, 379. 
General-Purpose Chickens, 317. 
Germinating Seeds, 38. 
Germination, 15, 20, 27, 34. 
Germination, Effect of Air, 29. 



Index 



301 



Germination, Effect of Temperature, 

26, 27, 28. 
Germination, Failure in, 30. 
Germination, Time of, 35. 
Germination, Time for, 35. 
Girdling, Deatli by, 60, 61. 
Glossary, Appendix H. 
Goats, 306. 
Goats, Angora, 306. 
Goats, Fleece of, 306. 
Goats, Food of, 306. 
Goats, Milking, 306. 
Goats, Uses of, 302. 
Graftage, 198, 199. 
Grape-Vines, Pruning, of 189. 
Green-Manuring, 131. 
Green Plants, Food of, 11, 12. 48. 
Ground Water, 100. 
Growth of Flower, 57. 
Growth of Fruits, 170. 
Growth of Root, 57, 67, 82. 
Growth of Stem, 57. 
Guano, 122. 
Guernsey, 273. 

Hard-Pan, 87. 

Hatching Poultry, 308. 

Harvesting Machinery, 393. 

Healthfulness of Milkers, 361. 

Healthfulness of Animals, 360. 

Hellriegel, 80. 

Herbivorous Animals, 326. 

Hereford, 270. 

Hogs, Bacon, 297. 

Hogs, Berkshires, 300. 

Hogs, "Cuts" of, 295. 

Hogs, Duroc-Jersey, 298. 

Hogs, Dressing of, 294. 

Hogs, Food of, 294. 

Hogs, Lard, 296. 

Hogs, Tamworth, 301 

Hogs, Poland-China, 299. 

Hogs, Types and Breeds, 294. 

Holstein-Friesian, 274. 

Home Grounds, 371. 

Home-Lot Planning, 372. 

Horse, Diagram Showing Points, 292. 

Horse, Feet of, 284. 

Horse, Fore-Legs, 283. 



Horse, Muscles of, 280. 

Horse, Muscles of Hind- Quarters, 

281. 
Horse, Percheron, 287. 
Horses, 277. 

Horses, Body Form, 282. 
Horses, Care of, 293. 
Horses, Clydesdale, 288. 
Horses, Coach type, 289. 
Horses, Draft Type, 286. 
Horses, Driving, 290. 
Horses, Judging of, 292. 
Horses, Ponies, 291. 
Horses, Qualities in, 279. 
Horses, Saddle, 290. 
Horses, Selection of, 279. 
Horses, Style in, 285. 
Hotbeds, 36. 
Humus, 91. 
Hybridization, 211. 
Hygroscopic Water, 100. 
Hyphce, 216. 

Incubation, 309. 
Individual Peculiarities, 343. 
Insecticides, Appendix B. 
Insects, Injurious, 243-248. 
Insects, Parasitic, 248. 
Insects, Useful, 243-248. 

Jerseys, 273. 
Johnson Grass, 63. 
Judging Butter, 366. 
Judging Horses, 292. 

Keeping Milk, 364. 

Kerosene Preparations, Appendix B. 

Landscape, 369. 
Layerage, 194. 
Lard Hogs, 296. 
Leaf Development, 149. 
Leaves, Structure of, 47. 
Leaves, Work of, 46. 
Legumes Enrich the Soil, 126. 
Legumes, Tubercles of, 125. 
Light Brahma Chickens, 316. 
Lime and Sulphur, Appendix B. 
Lime in Soils, 139. 



302 



Index 



Lime- Water, 92. 
Living Substances, 14. 

Machinery, Care of, 396. 

Machinery, Farm, 394. 

Machinery, Harvesting, 393. 

Machinery, Influence of, 397. 

Manure, Effect of, 115. 

Merino Sheep, 304. 

Milk, Care in Keeping, 364. 

Milk, Changes in, 356. 

Milk, Clarification of, 368. 

Milk, Composition of, 354. 

Milk, Kind of Feed Affects Flow of, 

355. 
Milking, Care in, 363. 
Milking Goats, 306. 
Milkers, Healthfulness of, 361. • 
Mineral Food, 112. 
Mineral Matter, in Soil Waters, 112. 
Mohair, 306. 
Mutton Breeds of Sheep, 305. 

Natural Selection, 205. 
Natural Science, 3. 
Nest-Trap, 312. 
Nitrogen, Fixation of, 124. 
Nitrogen, Loss from Soil, 130. 
Nitrification, 127. 
Nitrification, Promoting, 128. 
Node, 57. 
Nodes, 154. 

Nutrients, Digestibility of, 332. 
Nutrients, Functions of, 329. 
Nutrients in Feeds, 328. 
Nutrition of Animal Body, 322. 
Nutritive Substances, 323. 

Palatability of Food, 340. 
Parasites, 216. 
Paris Green, Appendix B. 
Pasturage, 346. 
Pasteurization. 367. 
Peculiarities, Individual, 344. 
Peculiarities, Racial, 343. 
Percheron Horse, 287. 
Perennial, 62. 
Phloem, 57, 60. 
Pinching of Plants, 176. 



Plant, Soil Relations, 65. 

Plant-Food, How Absorbed, 76. 

Plant-Food, Kinds of, 8. 

Plant-Food, Removed from Soil, 116, 

Plant Substances, 37, 39. 

Plant Substances, Increase of, 46. 

Planting, 33. 

Planting, Depth of, 35. 

Planting Seeds, 32. 

Plants, Drouth-Resistant, 55. 

Plants, Dry the Soil, 98. 

Plants, Food of, 8. 

Plants for School Garden, 379. 

Plants, Locating, 374. 

Plants, Structure of, 13. 

Plants to use in Landscape, 375. 

Plants, Variation in, 203. 

Plow, AVebster's, 392. 

Plymouth Rock Chickens, 317. 

Poland-China, 299. 

Pollination, 171. 

Pollination, Importance of, 171. 

Pond Scum, 8. 

Ponies, 291. 

Poultry. 307 

Poultry. Artificial Incubation, 309. 

Poultry, Care of Young, 320. 

Poultry. Classes of, 314. 

Poultry, Feeding, 311. 

Poultry Grounds, 310. 

Poultry, Hatching of, 308. 

Poultry Houses, 310. 

Poultry, Improving, 312. 

Poultry, Judging, 321. 

Poultry, Miscellaneous, 318. 

Poultry, Rearing of, 308. 

Power versus Hand-Labor, 395. 

Preparation of Feeds, 342. 

Promoting Nitrification, 128. 

Propagation, Methods of, 190-200. 

Propagation of fungi, 217. 

Protoplasm, 8, 14, 42. 

Proteids in Plants, 17. 

Pruning, 174-178. 

Pruning Orchard Trees, 188. 

Pruning, Reasons for, 179-185. 

Racial Peculiarities, 343. 
Rain, 104. 



Index 



303 



Rain, Absorption of, 99, 102. 

Rainfall in Oklahoma, 107. 

Ratio of Digestible Nutrients, 333. 

Ration, Planning a, 337. 

Ratios, Application of, 334. 

Rations, Balanced, 335. 

Rations, Kinds of, 336. 

Rothamsted Estate, 115. 

Records of Performance, 256. 

Reserve Food, 17, 37, 38, 160. 

Reserve Food, in Stems, 61. 

Reserve Food, Movement of, 60. 

Reserve Food, Storage of, "64. 

Root Growth, 68. 

Root, Growth of, 23. 

Root Growth, 77-80; amount of, 77. 

Root-Hairs, 21. 

Root-Hairs, Absorption by, 76. 

Root-Hairs, Absorption of Water by, 

22. 
Root-Hairs. Death of, 60. 
Roots, 48. 

Roots, Death of, 61. 
Roots, Growth of, 20, 67. 
Rotation, 142. 

Rotation, Advantages of, 146. 
Roughage, 339. 
Ruminating Animals, 327. 
Rural Home Grounds, 371. 

Saddle Horses, 290. 

Sand, 88. 

Sand Cultures, 109. 

Sanitary Dairy Products, 359. 

Salt for Stock, 341. 

Saprophyte, 216. 

School Gardens, 377. 

School Garden, Laying Out, 378. 

School Grounds, 380. 

Science of Agriculture, 4. 

Seed Oats, 213a. 

Seed-Testing, 31. 

Seedage, 191. 

Seedlings, of Hybrids, 212, 

Seeds, 15. 

Seeds, Germination, 15. 

Seeds, Growth, of 170. 

Seeds of Corn, 18. 

Seeds of Cotton, 19. 



I Seeds, Structure of, 16. 
Seeds, Reserve Food, 17. 
Selecting Animals, 263. 
Selecting Seed, 213. 
Self-Fertilization, 172. 
Sheep and Goats, 302. 
Sheep, Mutton Breeds, 305. 
Sheep, Merino, 304. 
Sheep, Uses of, 302. 
Sheep, Wool, 303. 
Shelter for Farm Animals,5347. 
Shorthorn, 269. 
Smut of Grain, 222. 
Soils, Weight of, 93d. 
Soil Bacteria, 114. 
Soil, Change 'n, 113. 
Soil, Classes of 93c. 
Soil Classification, 85, 87. 
Soil Drainage, 107. 
Soil Fertility, 92. 
Soil, Humus in, 91. 
Soil, Ideal, 69. 
Soil, Improving, 70, 116. 
Soil Management, 71, 84. 
Soil, Mineral Food in, 66. 
Soil Moisture, 150. 
Soil Mulch, 95. 
Soil Particles, 75. 
Soil Particles, Size of, 93. 
Soil, Roots in, 76. 
Soil Temperatures, 94. 
Soil-Testing, 133. 
Soil Tests. 117. 
Soil, Texture, 73, 74. 
Soil, Use to Plants, 66. 
Soil, Water Storage, 105. 
Soils, Ab.sorption by, 99. 
Soils, Acid, 141. 

Soils, Chemical Analysis of, 117. 
Soils, Color of, 94. 
Soils, Examination of, 92. 
Soils, Exhaustion of, 117. 
Soils. Lime in, 90. 
Soils Need Fertilizer, 117. 
Soils, Origin of, 86. 
Soils, Productiveness, 134. 
Soils, Rise of Water, 95b. 
Soils, Sedimentary, 86. 
Soils, Fertility of, 134. 



304 



Index 



Soils, Use to Plants, 84. 

Spore, 216 

Spraying Animals, Appendix B. 

Sprays, How Used, 220. 

Stable; Cleanliness of, 362. 

Stems, 56. 

Stems, Growth of, 57. 

Stems, Movement of Food in, 60. 

Stems, Movement of Water in, 60. 

Sterile Plants, 162. 

Stock, Salt for, 341. 

Stock Feeds, Average Digestible Nu- 
trients and Fertilizer Constituents 
in. Appendix E. 

Stock Feeds, Per Cent of Nutrients, 
Appendix D. 

Svibsoil, 87. 

Tamworth Hogs, 301. 
Temperature of Air, 153. 
Temperature of Soils, 94. 
Test, Babcock, 351. 
Texture of Soils, 74, 132. 
Thinning Fruit, 183. 
Tillage, Depth of, 81. 
Tillage Tools. 392. 
Tilth, 75. 

Tilth, Means of, 73. 
Tilth of Soil, 70. 
Tools, Tillage, 392. 
Transplanting, 201. 
Trap Nest, 312. 



Tubercles, 125. 
Turkeys, 319. 

Variation, Effect of Cultivation, 214. 
Variation in Plants, 203. 
Variation, Fixation of, 204. 
Variations, How Fixed, 204. 
Variations, How Perpetuated, 208. 
Variations Not Permanent, 207. 
Variations, Perpetuation of, 208. 
Variations, to Stimulate, 209. 
Variety Defined, 212. 

Water, Absorption by Plants, 66. 

Water-Cultures, 109. 

Water, in Irrigation, 103. 

Water, in Plants, 51-53. 

Water, in Soil, 89, 160. 

Water, Favorable to Growth, 102. 

Water, Loss of, by Plants, 47, 54. 

Water, Movement in Plants, 57. 

Water, Needed by Crops, 106. 

Water, Needed by Plants, 47, 51. 

Water, Percolation of, 100. 

Water Storage, 105. 

Water Table, 100. 

Weathering of Soil, 73. 

Weeds, 62. 

White Leghorn Chickens, 314 

Windbreaks, 390. 

Wool, 303. 

Wounds on Plants, 59. 



JUN 11 1908 



/ 



